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AOS1 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

define apoptosis

A

genetically programmed cell death-in which the death of the cell is controlled by particular cell signals from either the inside or the outside of the cell

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2
Q

cell theory

A

The Cell Theory states:

  1. All organisms are composed of cells.
  2. All cells are derived from pre-existing cells (biogenesis)
  3. The cell is the smallest/basic organisational unit of any living thing.
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3
Q

Prokaryotes

A

Prokaryotes are all unicellular divided into 2 domains bacteria and archaea.
Prokaryotic cells have no membrane-bound organelles.
Prokaryotic cells have no true nucleus, but there is a nuclear region.
Their DNA is in the form of a single circular chromosome
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells.

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4
Q

define solute, solvent and solution

A

Solute: substance that is dissolved
Solvent: liquid in which a substance dissolves
Solution: liquid mixture of solvent and solute

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5
Q

Define an impermeable, permeable and selectively permeable barrier

A

impermeable: no substance can cross it
permeable: any substance can cross it
selectively permeable: allows some substances to cross and can block others

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6
Q

define extremophiles

A

extremophiles are prokaryotic cells often found in extreme conditions such as high pressure and temperature

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7
Q

Define hypotonic,

A

Hypotonic-the surrounding solution of a cell that has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher concentration of free water molecules-the water moves into the cell causing it to swell

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8
Q

Surface area to volume ratio

A

as the size of an object increases the ratio between surface area and volume decreases
The rate at which materials enter and leave the cell depends on the surface area

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9
Q

what is the plasma membrane made of?

A

Carbohydrates, cholesterol, phospholipids and proteins

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10
Q

define polar

A

things that are polar are hydrophilic (attracted to water)-they have evenly distributed electrons

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11
Q

define non-polar

A

things that are non-polar are hydrophobic (repel water)-have unevenly distributed electrons

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12
Q

proteins in the plasma membrane

A

Peripheral-protein floating on the surface
Integral protein-imbedded in the fatty acid tail
Transmembrane protein-one side of the membrane to the other

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13
Q

define passive transport

A

transport that doesn’t require energy

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14
Q

define passive transport and examples

A

transport that doesn’t require energy for eg: diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis

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15
Q

Define active transport

A

Active transport-is the movement of substances across membranes using energy from ATP. they goes against the concentration gradient from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher

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16
Q

define osmosis

A

The passive net movement of free water molecules through a partially permeable membrane, from a region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration

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17
Q

define facilitated diffusion

A

passive movement of specific molecules down a concentration gradient via specific trans=port (carrier) proteins

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18
Q

cell replication in prokaryotes is called

A

binary fission-Simple process by which one parent cell divides in half to form two daughter cells

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19
Q

define simple diffusion

A

the passive movement of particles down a concentration gradient from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration

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20
Q

what is the pressure that causes water to move along the osmotic gradient called

A

osmotic pressure

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21
Q

define Hypertonic

A

the solution has a higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of free water molecules than inside the cell-the water diffuses out of the cell causing the cell to shrivel

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22
Q

Define isotonic

A

the concentration of solutes in the solution is equal to the concentration of solutes inside the cell-water diffuses in and out of the cell at the same rate

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23
Q

what is the goal of mitosis

A

to make identical cells

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24
Q

name the phases of mitosis

A

prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase

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25
Q

why is mitochondria rippled?

A

because it increases the surface area of the membrane which means more ATP is produced

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26
Q

how do cells move large quantities of materials all at one time or move molecules that are too large to pass through the proteins in the plasma membrane into and out of their cytoplasm

A

bulk transport

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27
Q

describe and explain the two types of bulk transport

A

Endocytosis-describes the incorporation of substances from outside the cell into the cell in a membrane-bound vesicle. There are two forms of endocytosis: phagocytosis (consuming solids) and pinocytosis (absorbing liquids) .

Exocytosis-releases substances such as wastes for secretion from the inside of the cell to the outside. Occurs by fussion of a vesicle.

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28
Q

what is the structure of the plasma membrane called

A

fluid mosaic

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29
Q

Name the three membrane proteins

A

Peripheral protein-floating on the surface
Integral protein-embedded in the fatty acid tail
Transmembrane protein-goes from one side to the other

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30
Q

name the facilitated diffusion proteins

A
  1. channel proteins (small, charged and polar molecule)
  2. Gated channel protein(open and close in response to stimuli)
  3. Carrier protein(larger, polar and charged molecules)
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31
Q

active transport is performed by what proteins

A

carrier proteins aka pumps

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32
Q

describe the -sexual reproduction process prokaryotes undergo

A

Binary fission
1. Cell replicates all of its genetic material by copying the DNA using replication enzymes which begins at the spot called origin of replication

2. The two large circular strands of DNA move to opposite ends of the cell, plasmids are randomly distributed 
3. The cell begins to grow 
4. The cytoplasm itself begins to split and a new cell membrane and wall is formed
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33
Q

how quickly can bacteria divide

A

every 20 minutes

34
Q

what are the two ends of nucleotides and what end can they be added on to

A

nucleotides have a 3prime (leading strand) and 5 prime (lagging strand)end. Nucleotides can only be added to the 3 prime end.

35
Q

describe the process of cell division in eukaryotes

A

Interphase, followed by mitosis and lastly cytokenisis

36
Q

describe the process of interphase

A 
interphase is made up of 3 stages:
G1; cell growth
S: DNA synthesis (replication)
each chromosome makes an exact copy of itself (these strands are known as chromatids)
G2: post DNA synthesis 
cell double checks for any errors
37
Q

Describe the 4 stages of mitosis

A
  1. prophase-chromosomes become visible as they shorten and thicken, they are held together by the centromere
  2. metaphase-the double stranded chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
  3. Anaphase-centromere divides so that each copy of the chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell as the tubules shorten
  4. Telophase-chromosomes become thinner and less obvious and a new nuclear membrane is formed
38
Q

describe cytokinesis

A

is the division of the cytoplasm

39
Q

how is cell divison controlled

A

there are three checkpoints
G1 growth checkpoint-checks to see if the cell is a healthy size if not the cell cycle stops (G0)
G2 synthesis checkpoint-sees if any errors are detected and proteins signal the cell to being mitosis
Mitosis checkpoint-proteins signal the cell to stop mitosis and enter the G1 phase once again

40
Q

describe the two types of cell death

A
  1. necrosis-is the premature death of a cell that has been damaged through external forces such as trauma or infection, the cell swells and ruptures spilling its contents which may have adverse affects on surrounding cells

apoptosis-‘programmed cell death’. it allows the removal of cells without spilling their contents to the internal environment.

41
Q

explain apoptosis in depth

A

Cell death occurs when the cell membrane shrinks, blebs form, DNA fragments and lysosomes empty their contents into the cell causing the cellular components to be broken down.
The dead cell is then consumed by phagocytes.

42
Q

identify two characteristics of stem cells

A

Stem cells can self-renew-make copies of themselves

Differentiate-make other type of cells (specialised)

43
Q

define Potency

A

a measure of how many types of specialised cells a stem cell can make

44
Q

pluripotent stem cells

A

can make most types of specialised cells in the body-embryonic stem cells are mostly pluripotent

45
Q

multipotent stem cells

A

can make many types of specialised cells in the body but not all types-tissue stem cells are multipotent

46
Q

totipotent stem cells

A

can differentiate into all types of specialised cells in the body PLUS cells that are needed during embryo development

47
Q

unipotent stem cells

A

can only differentiate into one type of specialised cell (spermatogonia cells can only differentiate into sperm cells)

48
Q

cytoplasm

A

made of cytosol, it is where all of the activities of the cell take place

49
Q

Plasma membrane

A

surrounds the cell, it forms the boundary between the cell contents and the extracellular environment

50
Q

cell wall

A

surrounds only plant cells, located outside the membrane, it helps maintain the cells shape

51
Q

Nucleus

A

In the cytoplasm, regulates all activities of the cell and contains the genetic materials (DNA)

52
Q

Nucleolus

A

Located within the nucleus made of protein and RNA, it is where ribosomes are assembled

53
Q

Rough ER

A

studded with ribosomes, involved in transporting proteins within the cell

54
Q

Smooth ER

A

membranous tubules with no ribosomes, synthesises lipids and transports them

55
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

membranous sacs, involved in modifying, packaging and transporting proteins received from the ER (exocytosis)

56
Q

Lysosomes

A

sac containing enzymes, bud off the golgi apparatus and release enzymes that cause cell death

57
Q

mitochondria

A

are mostly present in metabolically active cells, the site of aerobic respiration with inner membranes

58
Q

plastids

A

in the cytoplasm of plant cells and protista

59
Q

Chloroplast

A

contains chlorophyll and is the site of photosynthesis

60
Q

Vacuole

A

liquid-filled sacs in the cytoplasm which store materials

61
Q

centrioles

A

in the cytoplasm of animal cells, part of the cytoskeleton, they support microtubules that move chromosomes during cell division

62
Q

zygote

A

diploid cell resulting from the fusion of an egg and sperm-it is totipotent

63
Q

Embryonic stem cells

A

un-differentiated and are found in the blastocyst they are pluripotent

64
Q

gastrula

A

has three primary layers of cells called germ layers
Groups of cells in an embryo
Ectoderm-outer layer
Mesoderm-middle layer
Endoderm-inner layer
The stem cells within these layers can only become particular things

65
Q

purposes of apoptosis

A
  1. maintain the number of adult cells
  2. defend against damaged or dangerous cells
  3. the transformation of embryonic tissues (fingers)
66
Q

Polypeptide

A

A long, chain-like molecule consisting of many amino acids linked together.

67
Q

size of a prokaryotic cell

A

1-10um

68
Q

size of eukaryotic animal cells

A

10-20um

69
Q

size of eukaryotic plant cells

A

30-50um

70
Q

List 8 organelles and structures common to both plant and animal cell

A

nucleus, plasma membrane, ribosomes, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth), cytoskeleton, vacuoles (vary is size and function)

71
Q

define diffusion

A

Is the tendency of molecules to dispense until they are evenly distributed in the available space (reached equilibrium)

72
Q

define turgid cell

A

A turgid cell is a cell that has turgor pressure. A plant cell that is placed in a hypotonic solution would cause the water to move into the cell by osmosis, resulting in large turgor pressure being exerted against the plant cell wall

73
Q

phospholipids have what kind of fatty acid tails

A

hydrophobic

74
Q

small and nonpolar molecules can cross the plasma membrane via what

A

simple diffusion

75
Q

oxygen and carbon are able to cross the phospholipid bilayer by what process

A

diffusion

76
Q

proteins enter the cell by what process

A

Endocytosis/Phagocytosis

77
Q

high SA:V means what?

A

The higher SA:V ratio, the faster the rate of diffusion which thus increases efficiency of nutrient absorption and waste expulsion.

78
Q

how to increase the cell SA: V

A

1) Cell Compartmentalisation
2) Flattened Shape
3) Plasma Membrane Extension

79
Q

common cell features

A
  1. Plasma Membrane
  2. Cytoplasm
  3. DNA
  4. Ribosomes
80
Q

In binary fission what happens to the cytoplasm

A

There is an equal division of the cytoplasm.

81
Q

3 germ layers in the gastrula

A

ectoderm-outer
mesoderm-middle
endoderm-inner

82
Q

IPS

A

induced pluripotent stem cells-reversible cell differentiation

Science (6 decks)

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