AOS 3;LEARNING AND MEMORY Flashcards
Define neural plasticity
refers to the ability of the brains neural structure or function to be changed in response to the environment- both genetic and physical
Define learning
a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience
Define Memory
the process of encoding, storage and retrieval of information
Define Synaptogenesis
synaptogenesis refers to the process by which synapses are formed between neurons . Occurs throughout life but most rapidly during infancy and up to 2 years
What is synaptic plasticity?
Is the physical changes which occur at the synaptic level and is the biological bases of learning and memory. Occurs due to LTP
What is the main neurotransmitter associated with learning
glutamate
In what ways can neural plasticity occur?
- producing growth of new synaptic connections
- pruning away existing unused synaptic connections
- modifying the strength or effectiveness of synaptic transmission
Define Long term potentiation (LTP)
long term potentiation is the long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections resulting in enhanced or more efficient synaptic transmission
How does LTP occur?
results from repeated stimulation
What happens to the post synaptic neutron in LTP?
the post synaptic neurons become more likely to fire due to the increased number of receptor sites on axon terminals and the increased bushiness on axon terminals
What does LTP allow us to do ?
decrease the likelihood of forgetting and strengthen important memories
Define Long term depression (LTD)
is the long lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission, resulting from lack of stimulation.
What occurs due to LTD?
synaptic pruning
When does LTD occur?
when efficiency of synaptic transmission is reduced
How does LTD effect our memory?
It increases the likelihood of forgetting and allows us to prune unwanted connections
What happens in post synaptic neurons in LTD?
they become less responsive
Define classical conditioning
a form of learning based on the repeated association of two normally unrelated stimuli. it depends on a reflex response (involuntary and innate)
Define neutral stimulus
produces no naturally occurring response
Define unconditioned stimulus
something presented that produces a naturally occurring response
Define conditioned stimulus
something is presented, that when repeatedly paired with ups producing a conditioned response
Define unconditioned response
a reaction that occurs upon presentation of UCS
Define conditioned response
a reaction that occurs upon presentation of a CS
What occurs during before learning ?
Before learning is the acquisition stage and is when a neutral stimulus has to be chosen as well as an unconditional stimulus which produces an unconditioned response
What occurs during learning?
Learning is the stage of acquiring or gaining of a new skill.. It is the time period required to acquire the learnt skill and requires the NS to be presented numerous of times after the UCS so that it can become the CS
To acquire a behaviour through classical conditioning What must occur?
Reinforcement of through training which is when the NS is immediately followed by or paired with the UCS
What occurs in the after conditioning stage?
The NS becomes the CS and now produced a CR
What are the principles that influence classical conditioning?
- stimulus generalisation
- stimulus discrimination
- extinction
- spontaneous recovery
Define stimulus generalisation CC
after conditioning, stimulation generalisation occurs then stimulates similar to the CS trigger the CR
Define stimulus discrimination CC
IS the ability to teach the learner to only respond to a specific stimulus to produce CR. It can be achieved by exposing the stimulus we don’t want a response to without following it with UCS
Define extinction
Is the gradual decrease in strength or frequency of a conditioned response when the UCS is no longer presented after CS=loss of reinforcement
Define spontaneous recovery
Is the reappearance of a CR following a period of apparent extinction.Usually response is weaker and more short lived than original CR
Define operant conditioning
also known as instrumental learning, it is the learning process in which the likely hood of a behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequence of that behaviour.
What are the three stages of operant conditioning?
A- antecedent/discriminative stimulus
B-Behaviour
C-consequence
Define the antecedent stage?
the antecedent is the stimulus that comes before or is the precursor to the response operant conditioningIt creates the conditions or environment which signals a response
Define the Behaviour stage?
Is the response to the stimulus which the organism makes due to the antecedent. Generally most operant responses are considered voluntary as the learner decides to make them
Define the consequence stage
IS what follows the behaviour or response to the antecedent. Consequences can either be pleasant or unpleasant. If a consequence is pleasant for the individual than the behaviour is reinforced. if the consequence is unpleasant than the behaviour is weakened
Define neurotransmitters
a chemical messenger synthesised within a presynaptic neuron and transmitted across the synapse
What are similarities between neurotransmitters and neurohormones ?
- both chemical messengers
- both have the ability to enhance or inhibit a response
What are characteristics of neurotransmitters that do not apply to neurohormones ?
- are chemical messengers released at the synapse
- released quickly
- travel short distances
What are characteristics of neurohormones that do not apply to neurotransmitters?
- released directly into bloodstream
- slower release
- travel longer distances
Examples of neurotransmitters
- glutamate
- seratonin
Examples of neurohormones
- dopamine
- adrenalin
- noradrenaline
What is the role of glutamate in synaptic plasticity ?
- promotes growth and strengthening of synaptic connections
- vital role in LTP and LTD= the more glutamate the more likely it is that
- main excitatory neurotransmitters for learning and memory
What is the role of adrenalin in learning and memory?
- consolidation= is the biological process making newly formed memory stable and enduring after learning
- transfers memory from short term memory to long term memory
What can effect consolidation of memories from short term to long term memory ?
time or disruption (brain trauma or illness)
How does adrenalin effect consolidation ?
adrenalin effects memory consolidation by activating the amygdala. overall adrenalin tends to enhance our memory retention
What role does adrenalin play in the encoding process of memory consolidation ?
can enhance the encoding process of long term memories of emotionally arousing experiences both pleasant and unpleasant. This has adaptive value for survival
Define reinforcement
is any event that follows a response or behaviour and increases the probability of the behaviour or response being repeated
Define positive reinforcement
Occurs when a pleasant or desirable event follows a response and generally increases or strengthen the likely hood of that response occurring again
Define negative reinforcement
Occurs when an unpleasant stimuli is removed, reduced or prevented, thus creating a positive consequence. This in turn increases the likely hood of the behaviour occurring again
Define punishment
Punishment is any event following the behaviour that decrease the likely hood of the response occurring again because it introduces an unpleasant stimulus
Define response cost
Is a form of punishment that entails something pleasurable being removed. when a positive stimulus is removed
What factors influence the effectiveness of punishment ?
- How often the punishment is implemented
- Must fit the behaviour, it must be too harsh or lenient
- Doesn’t teach what is right only what is wrong
What is stimulus generalisation in reference to Operant learning?
tendency to respond in the same way to similar antecedents
What is stimulus discrimination in reference to Operant learning?
response conditioned by use of reinforcers to discriminate between stimuli
What is extinction in reference to Operant learning?
is when the learnt response to antecedent gradually decreasing in strength of rate of response when reinforcement stops
What is spontaneous recovery in relation to Operant learning ?
is when the previously reinforced response returns after a period of extinction
Define observational learning
Is when learning occurs by watching others and noting the consequences of their actions, which in turn can limit or encourage their behaviour
Define model
is a person who serves as an example in observational learning
What kind of behaviours can we learn through observational learning?
- physical skills/routines
- socially appropriate gestures
- emotional responses
- gender roles
- work relationships and friendships
What are some important principles of observational learning?
- more active than classical or operant conditioning
- thus learning can be latent(not shown until required)
- cognition is important in observational learning( learner is aware of future reinforcements/punishments)
What are the steps of observational learning ?
A-atttention=focus on distinctive features of models behaviour
R-retention=need to be able to remember models behaviour
R-reproduction= must be capable of imitating the behaviour
M-motivation= needs to be an incentive to imitate behaviour
R-reinforcement= must be some reward for modelling behaviour (either internal satisfaction, external reinforcement or vicarious reinforcement)
What are factors which make it more likely for the behaviour to be modelled?
- Model is liked
- Model has Hugh status
_similar to ourselves
-familiar to us( behaviour stands out clearly and we can imagine being able to copy the behaviour )
