AO1s

Question 1

4 definitions of abnormality

Answer 1

1. deviation from social norms
2. deviation from ideal mental health
3. failure to function adequately
4. statistical infrequency

Question 1

Marie Jahoda came up with 6 criteria. The less met , the more abnormal they are. What are they?

Answer 1

1. Positive self-attitude - positive about oneself and abilities
   
   2. Behaving independently - doing things by yourself
   3. Self-actualisation - constantly trying to learn and improve themselves
   4. Resistance to stress - displaying resistance to stress, due to coping with the hassles of everyday life
   5. Accurate perception of reality - when a person sees the world in a way that’s similar to others around them
   6. Environmental mastery - when a person can adjust to new situations easily

Question 2

According to statistical infrequency definition, _ % or less of people display behaviour or trait.

Answer 2

5% or less of people display behaviour or trait.

Question 3

What is a social norm?

Answer 3

Social norms are unwritten rules for how members of a social group are expected to behave.

Question 4

Deviation from social norms

Answer 4

The social norms definition of abnormality says that a person is abnormal if their behaviour doesn’t follow social norms. For example, someone walking around naked in the streets of london

Question 5

Deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 5

Deviation from ideal mental health focuses on what it means to have ideal mental health, and anyone who behaves differently to the behaviours that represent ideal mental health are classified as abnormal with a mental disorder. Jahoda (1958) came up with 6 criteria that she believed indicated mental health, which were positive self-attitude, behaving independently, self-actualisation, resistance to stress, accurate perception of reality and environmental mastery. for instance, someone with depression may have a negative view of themselves and their abilities so may be considered abnormal

Question 6

Failure to function adequately

Answer 6

Failure to function argues that a person is abnormal if they cannot cope with everyday life and mundane tasks such as looking after ourselves, being sociable, going to school/work etc.

Question 7

Statistical infrequency

Answer 7

• Statistical infrequency is when a small percentage of a population display a certain behaviour or trait.
• On a normal distribution graph, abnormality is defined when a trait or behaviour on the extremes of either side of the curve, 2.5%, so overall abnormality is defined when it is only displayed by 5% of the entire population.

Question 8

phobia exp

Who proposed the 2-process model?

Answer 8

Mowrer (1947)

Question 9

What does the 2 process model state?

Answer 9

Phobias are caused by CC and maintained by OC

Question 10

What are the 3 types of phobias?

Answer 10

• simple phobias
• social phobias
• agoraphobias

Question 11

definition and example, and subcategories

Simple phobias

Answer 11

Most common type where a person fears a specific object in the environment. for instance fear of spiders is arachnophobia. can be grouped into animal phobias, injury phobias, situational phobias and natural phobias

Question 12

define, example, subcategories

Social phobias

Answer 12

Social phobias involve feelings of anxiety in social situations, for example, when giving a speech in public. Sufferers feel like they are being judged, which leads to feelings of inadequacy and apprehension. Social phobias are further divided into three categories: performance phobias (e.g. eating at restaurant with friends), interaction phobias and generalised phobias.

Question 13

define example

Agoraphobia

Answer 13

Fear of open or public spaces, sufferers may experience panic attacks which may make them feel vulnerable in open spaces.

Question 14

Behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of phobias

Answer 14

Behavioural: avoidance of feared object and panic
Emotional: excessive anxiety and fear
Cognitive: selective attention and irrational thinking

Question 15

Who conducted the little albert study?

Answer 15

Watson and Rayner (1920)

Question 16

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 16

Classical conditioning is a process of learning by associating two stimuli together to condition (learn) a response.

Question 17

What is operant conditioning in regards to phobias?

Answer 17

According to the theory of operant conditioning, phobias can be negatively reinforced. This is where a behavior is strengthened because an unpleasant consequence is removed. Mowrer suggests this is what happens when we avoid the phobic stimulus; we reduce the fear and this reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour and so the phobia is maintained.

Question 18

Outline the Little Albert study

Answer 18

• John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) wanted to study the development of phobias and conducted a laboratory experiment where they created a 9-month-old baby called ‘Little Albert’
• At the start of the study, Albert showed no unusual anxiety or worries about different objects
• Albert tried to play with a white rat when presented with it at the beginning
• However, Watson and Rayner wanted to give Albert a phobia and so whenever the white rat was presented to Albert, they made a loud, scary noise by banging an iron bar close to Albert’s ear
• The noise (UCS), created a fear response
• When the rat (NS) and the UCS were put together, they became associated and both then created the fear response
• Albert started to display fear when he saw the rat (NS)
• The rat then became the CS that produces the CR and the phobia had started
• Watson and Rayner showed that the conditioned stimulus could be generalised to similar objects; when they showed Albert other fluffy objects, such as Father Christmas’ beard made from cotton wool, a non-white rabbit, fur coat, Albert showed distress at all of these
• His phobia had become generalised

Question 19

phobias

What is preparedness according to seligman (1971)?

Answer 19

Some behavioural responses may be better explained by evolutionary theory for those phobias which exist that would once have been dangerous to our ancestors, E.g. Darkness, snakes, and dogs. Evolutionary theory explains this as preparedness (Seligman 1971).

Question 20

2 treatments for phobias

Answer 20

flooding
systematic desensitisation

Question 21

key terms

Outline systematic desensitisation

Answer 21

Fear hierarchy
Classical conditioning
Counter-conditioning
Relaxation response
Fear-arousing steps
Contiguous paring (relaxation and fear)
Extinguished
Covert desensitisation (imagining), in vivo desensitisation (actual contact)
reciprocal inhibition
4 to 6 sessions, 45 mins

Systematic desensitisation is a highly effective treatment for phobias that is based on principles of classical conditioning, counter-conditioning, and reciprocal inhibition. The process involves creating a fear hierarchy, which is a hierarchical list of fear-arousing steps that range from least to most anxiety-provoking situations related to the phobia. The individual then learns relaxation techniques, such as the relaxation response, to induce a state of relaxation. These relaxation techniques are contiguously paired with each fear-arousing step, either through covert desensitisation (imagining the situations) or in vivo desensitisation (actual contact with the feared situations). Through repeated exposure to the fear-arousing steps while in a relaxed state, the fear response gradually diminishes and becomes extinguished. This is because the relaxation response counteracts the fear response, a concept known as reciprocal inhibition. Systematic desensitization typically involves 4 to 6 sessions, each lasting 45 minutes, allowing individuals to gradually overcome their phobias.

Question 22

What is reciprocal inhibition?

Answer 22

Inhibiting anxiety by substituting it with a competing response, making it difficult for fear and relaxation to coexist simultaneously.

Question 23

Whats a fear hierachy?

Answer 23

Fear Hierarchy: The therapist collaborates with the individual to create a fear hierarchy, which is a ranked list of situations or stimuli associated with the phobia. The items on the list are ordered from least to most fear-inducing.

Question 24

What’s counter-conditioning?

Answer 24

Counter-Conditioning: In systematic desensitization, counter-conditioning occurs, aiming to replace the fear response with a relaxation response. This is achieved by pairing the fear-inducing stimulus (e.g. spider for arachnophobia) with relaxation techniques.

Question 25

What’s a relaxation response?

Answer 25

Relaxation Response: The individual is taught relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing or progressive muscle relaxation, to induce a state of calmness.

deep muscle relaxation

Question 26

What are fear arousing steps?

Answer 26

Fear-Arousing Steps: Starting from the least anxiety-provoking item on the fear hierarchy, the individual is gradually exposed to each fear-arousing step while maintaining a relaxed state.

Question 27

What is meant by contiguous pairing?

Answer 27

Contiguous Pairing (Relaxation and Fear): During the exposure to each fear-arousing step, the relaxation response is continuously paired with the fear-inducing stimulus, weakening the association between fear and the stimulus.

Question 28

phobias

What is meant by the fear being extinguished?

Answer 28

Extinguished: Through the process of systematic desensitisation, the fear response is extinguished, and the individual no longer experiences debilitating anxiety or phobic reactions.

Question 29

Briefly outline:

Covert Desensitisation (Imagining)

In Vivo Desensitisation (Actual Contact)

Answer 29

Systematic desensitization can be carried out in two ways: covert desensitisation involves imagining the fear-arousing situations, while in vivo desensitisation involves direct exposure to the actual fear-inducing stimuli.

Question 30

treating phobias

Outline Brosnan and Thorpe (2006) study

Answer 30

• Investigating technophobia (fear of computers) could be successfully treated by systematic desensitisation
• 30 computer anxious participants assigned to treatment and non -treatment group, 59 control
• The reduction in anxiety was 3x greater in the treated group than the non-treated group
• The success allows technophobes to participate in a technological world, reintegrating into society

Question 31

Outline flooding as a treatment for phobias (6 marks)

Answer 31

Flooding is a behavioural therapy which, rather than exposing a person to their phobic stimulus gradually, exposes the individual to the anxiety‐inducing stimulus IMMEDIATELY . For example, a person with a phobia of dogs would be placed in a room with a dog and asked to stroke the dog straight away. This intense exposure is done over an extended period of time in a SAFE and controlled manner. With flooding, a person is unable to avoid (NEGATIVELY REINFORCE) their phobia and through continuous exposure, anxiety levels eventually decrease. Since the option of employing avoidant behaviour is removed, EXTINCTION will soon occur since fear is a time‐limited response to a situation which eventually subsides. As EXHAUSTION sets in for the individual they may begin to feel a sense of calm and relief which creates a new positive association to the stimulus.

Question 32

what are the 2 cognitive theories that attempt to explain depression

Answer 32

• Beck’s cognitive triad 1967
• Ellis’s ABC model 1962

Question 33

What are the 3 main components of Beck’s cognitive triad?

Answer 33

Negative Self-Schemas
Cognitive biases
The Negative Triad

Question 34

According to Beck, what is meant by a negative self-schema?

Answer 34

A negative self-schema refers to a cognitive framework in which an individual consistently processes and interprets information about themselves in a negative manner. It involves a distorted perception of oneself, leading to a biased recall of negative self-relevant information and an expectation of negative outcomes.

Question 35

According to Beck, what is meant by cognitive bias?

Answer 35

According to Beck, cognitive bias refers to the faulty information processing and negative thinking patterns that individuals with depression tend to have. These biases include selective attention, where individuals focus on negative stimuli, and selective memory, where they predominantly recall negative experiences or interpret events in a negative manner.

Question 36

According to Beck, what is meant by the negative triad?

Answer 36

The negative triad refers to a pattern of negative thinking. Negative view of the self (I am useless), world (the world is an evil place) and future (I will never go far in life).

Question 37

What do ABC stand for in Ellis’ ABC model?
Give an example of each.

Answer 37

Activating event - failing an exam
Belief - I am a failure and will never succeed in anything :(
Consequence - feeling overwhelmed, anxious and avoiding future academic challenges

Question 38

Outline the key assumptions of Ellis’ ABC model

Answer 38

• Cognitive dysfunction refers to distorted thinking patterns, such as catastrophising or black-and-white thinking
• Ellis distinguishes between rational and irrational beliefs. Rational beliefs are flexible, logical, and based on evidence, while irrational beliefs are rigid, illogical, and often exaggerated. It is the irrational beliefs that typically lead to distress and negative emotional consequences.
• Preconcieved expectations is rigidly holding onto assumptions about how things should be, leading to disappointment and frustration if reality doesn’t align, leads to mustubatory thinking

Question 39

According to Ellis, what is mustabatory thinking? Give an example.

Answer 39

According to Ellis, mustabatory thinking refers to the irrational belief that certain conditions or demands “must” or “should” be met for an individual to be happy or successful. An example of mustabatory thinking linked to depression could be an individual believing, “I must always be perfect and never make any mistakes, otherwise I am a failure”, leading to constant self-criticism and feelings of worthlessness when they perceive themselves as falling short of their own unattainable standards.

Question 40

Outline CBT as a cognitive treatment for depression

Answer 40

• 6-20 sessions
  
  • 1 hour
  • Set homework
  • Empirical disputing - investigating reality of negative beliefs, using evidence to challenge rational or irrational thinking
  • Psychoeducation - raising awareness of the disorder
  • Guided discovery - guide you to discover something about yourself
  • cognitive restructuring