Antarctica Flashcards
What’s a global common
Supra national spaces in which common shares resources can be found
Important figures
Avg temp = -50
200 people allowed to walk on surface everyday
Around 70 research stations from multiple different countries
Physical geography
Divided ice sheets
Largest is the Ross ice shelf
Climate and Environment
• The Antarctic’s climate is entirely unique, and is one of the most extreme environments on the planet.
• Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth, with temperatures averaging the -40°Cs (-49°C
average at the South Pole, although coastal areas are warmer).
• Antarctica is also one of the driest places on Earth. Coastal areas of Antarctica receive the most precipitation, averaging at around 400 mm - 600 mm+ a year.
• Inland however, there is barely any precipitation, and some places average under 50 mm of precipitation a year. To put this into perspective, the UK’s average annual rainfall is 5 times larger than Antarctica’s, yet Antarctica is 58 times bigger than the UK.
Antarctica is so dry that it can be considered a desert,
making it
scientifically
speaking
the
largest
desert in the world.
The McMurdo
Dry
Valleys in Antarctica are thought to have not seen rain in
nearly 2 million years! These areas of Antarctica are entirely snow-free.
The winds of Antarctica are very strong, known as katabatics, or katabatic winds. These winds are strongest in the steepest areas of Antarctica. Gales of 60-70 mph are known to occur around 40 days in the year. The highest wind speed ever recorded in Antarctica was 199 mph (327 km/h).
McMurdo
Natural resources
Including the marine life, Antarctica is rich in natural resources like fossil fuels and minerals.
Large reserves of oil are located in the Southern Ocean, and iron ore deposits are rich in the Transantarctic Mountains.
iource:https://antarcticakn.weebly.com/minerals.html)
Vulnerability as a global common
Vulnerability as a Global Common
Due to the environment and the resources in Antarctica, the idea of this hub of resources being a
‘common’ for all makes it vulnerable. This is especially true due to the demand in resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, and fish.
The climate of Antarctica is also incredibly fragile; it is highly adapted to the extreme environment, meaning a change in something like temperature could have many devastating knock-on effects to the ecosystem. Therefore, Antarctica is even more vulnerable to climate change, meaning the shared responsibility of Antarctica must consider the world’s emissions and contributions to global warming.
Only protected until 2048 under the Antarctic treaty
The major threats to Antarctica are
Climate Change
Fishing and Whaling
Mineral/Resource
Exploitation
Tourism and Scientific
Research
Climate change
CLIMATE CHANGE
Due to the Antarctic being a fragile cold environment, a change to the temperature will obviously have devastating effects.
• Warmer sea and atmospheric temperatures melt ice sheets, causing huge icebergs to calve into the sea. Melting ice sheets also cause sea levels to rise, which causes global flooding.
• Animals and plants are affected by changes in temperatures as they are highly adapted to the cold environment. Invasive species that are adapted to higher temperatures could grow and colonise the environment. Migration patterns of certain animals have also been disrupted by the higher temperatures, and some species (like the Adélie penguin) have even declined due to warmer temperatures. This also affects the Antarctic food chain.
• CO2 is released into the atmosphere that is stored in ice sheets, which causes global temperatures to rise more, enhancing global warming on the Antarctic.
• The Albedo Effect (the process of white surfaces - in this case ice - reflecting solar radiation back into the atmosphere) is lessened due to less ice sheets, meaning more heat is absorbed into oceans. This has caused a rise in ocean temperatures, enhancing the devastating effects.
Fishing and whaling
FISHING AND WHALING
Antarctica is under threat from unsustainable fishing, which disrupts the food chain of the fragile environment. Overfishing removes vital animals in the already small food chain, such as overfishing of krill which removes other marine animal food sources. Krill is the most fished marine animal, with 150-200,000 tonnes fished annually, and the majority of this being Antarctic Krill. Despite regulations, there are still reports of illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing. This fishing is unsustainable and causes wide scale marine habitat damage.
Mineral and resource exploitation
MINERAL AND RESOURCE EXPLOITATION
All mining is banned in Antarctica, and any mineral/fossil fuel exploitation would be extremely difficult due to Antarctica’s location and thick ice. However, with a fossil fuel crisis looming within the century, the demand for more resources may lead to exploitation being possible. The exploitation of minerals and resources poses major threats to the habitat.
• Oil exploitation disrupts the habitat through the infrastructure that comes with it, e.g. drilling and pipelines.
• Oil spills also cause catastrophic damage to Antarctica, as the fragile ecosystem cannot remove the oil quickly, causing long term damage.
• Metal and mineral
exploitation damages the environment through mining and
quarrying, scaring away wildlife and causing damage beyond repair. Currently, Antarctica is protected from this exploitation, but this is not to say it will be in the future.
• The use of fossil fuels also contributes to global warming, further affecting Antarctica’s ecosystem.
Tourism and scientific research
TOURISM AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Tourism in Antarctica is growing industry due to the demand for ‘extreme tourism’. Over 37,000 visited Antarctica in the seasons of 2009-2010, the majority of these on cruises. Tourists are more frequently travelling to Antarctica by air and sea, which threatens Antarctica directly through the effects of ships, and through fossil fuel emissions. Sea ice destruction and cruise ship crashes are major contributors to environmental destruction as tourist numbers increase. For example, the MS Explorer crash in 2007 left a mile long diesel spill, which disrupted penguin breeding grounds.
Tourists in Antarctica may disrupt the ecosystem by trampling plants and scaring wildlife away.
Any litter dropped will stay in the nutrient cycle for a long time, as decomposition is slow. Any foreign objects brought in by tourists may also enter and disrupt the food chain, bringing a risk of invasive species with it.
Scientific research in the Antarctic is very important, as a lot of environmental data is collected here. With scientific research, though, brings scientific equipment and facilities.
Research bases have been constructed around the Antarctic, which have changed the natural environment and, if not handled properly, may threaten to disrupt it. For example, dogs such as Huskies used to be an integral part of assisting with scientific research, e.g. companionship, transportation etc. These dogs were sometimes fed seals and penguins when there was no food available, and also brought the threat of infecting seals. Dogs have now been permanently removed from the continent, but this is just one example of how scientific research must be sustainably managed, or it threatens the Antarctic.
The IWC
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was set up under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling in 1946. The IWC enforces regulations on its 89 member states; all regulations have influence over whaling in the Southern Ocean (Antarctica). Roles of the IWC include:
• Setting ‘catch limits’ and other rules such as hunting restrictions to regulate how many whales can be caught etc.
• Working with the Scientific Committee in order to research and study whaling.
• Co-ordinating conservation work through yearly meetings and other means.
• Providing funds for research and conservation.
Some examples of the work the IWC has done:
• Introduced a Whaling Moratorium in 1982, banning all commercial whaling on all species and all populations until further notice.
The Madrid protocol
Provides comprehensive environmental protection of the continent
Requires all proposed activities must be subject to prior assessment of their environmental impact
The Antarctic treaty
The Antarctic Treaty is an agreement that designates Antarctica as a scientific preserve and bans military activity on the continent. It also promotes international cooperation in scientific research in Antarctica. The treaty was signed in 1959 and has since been joined by many countries. It’s a crucial document for protecting the environment and promoting peaceful activities in Antarctica.
The Antarctic Treaty (1959)
The Protocol on Environmental Protection
to the Antarctic Treaty (1991)
• 53 parties (countries) to the treaty
• Treaty states Antarctica should only be used for peaceful means
• Antarctica can be used for scientific research, but all research has a right to be shared and cooperated on
• All stations and operations can be inspected at any time
• Antarctica is not any country’s territory, it is a global common
• Nuclear activity is banned
Issues and Criticisms
• The Treaty is not mandatory, meaning countries can choose not to sign it.
• Inspections do not occur often
• All decisions must be unanimous. If any country does not ratify a
modification/amendment to the treaty within two years, it cannot go forward.
The protocol on environmental protection
The Protocol on Environmental Protection
to the Antarctic Treaty (1991)
• 53 parties (countries) to the treaty
• Treaty states Antarctica should only be used for peaceful means
• Antarctica can be used for scientific research, but all research has a right to be shared and cooperated on
• All stations and operations can be inspected at any time
• Antarctica is not any country’s territory, it is a global common
• Nuclear activity is banned
Issues and Criticisms
• The Treaty is not mandatory, meaning countries can choose not to sign it.
• Inspections do not occur often
• All decisions must be unanimous. If any country does not ratify a
modification/amendment to the treaty within two years, it cannot go forward.
• Bans all activities relating to mineral resources, aside from for scientific purposes. This means there can be no mining or fuel extraction on the continent.
• Established the Committee for Environmental Protection, an advisory body that provides advice and recommendations to members.
• Created and added to regulations that were set out in the original treaty, including additions to waste management and marine pollution.
NGOs in Antarctica
ASOC - defend Antarctic and southern ocean ecosystem from anthropogenic activity
Oceanities - assists environmental protection across entire arctic peninsula
