Animals Flashcards
Traditionally, how were domesticated animals judged solely on?
Their physical health as indicated by their ability:
-to grow
-to reproduce and raise offspring
-to resist disease
What is the agreement surrounding domesticated animals’ welfare?
That an important part of an animal’s welfare is the provision of opportunities for it to express its natural behaviour patterns
What are ethics and what is considered unethical?
Ethics refers to the moral values and rules that ought to govern human behaviour
It is unethical to subject domesticated animals to a regime of negative experiences, like pain and distress
What are properties of free range farming?
moreland needed
more labour intensive
product sold at a higher price
animals have a better quality of life
What are properties of intensive farming?
-less ethical than free range
-higher output (high profit: low cost)
When do animals show behavioural indicators of poor welfare?
when they are confined in an unnatural environment, they often show behaviour patterns that differ from those in a natural environment
What is stereotypy?
A behaviour pattern where an animal makes repetitive movements over and over again.
This is often shown my animals houses in bare and/or confined enclosures
What is misdirected behaviour?
When a normal behaviour is directed inappropriately towards the animal itself, another animal or its surroundings.
Common in animals that are kept in isolation
For example:
-excessive licking, plucking or chewing limbs
-over-groomign
How can behaviours due to poor welfare be reduced?
By enriching the animals’ environment. One way to do this is providing the animals with companions of their own in a stimulating environment, (with sounds, scents and objects) similar to those in a natural environment
What is symbiosis?
the close relationship between two different species.
Co-evolution occurs, and the species become closely adapted to each other
What are the two types of symbiosis?
-parasitism
-mutualism
What is parasitism?
A parasite lives on another organism (the host) from which it obtains.
This:
-benefits the parasite (energy or nutrients)
-harms (or kills) the histamine because of loss of resources
In what ways can parasites transmit to new hosts?
-Direct contact, eg head lice
-Resistant stages where the organism is able to survive adverse condition until a new host become available, eg cat fleas
-use of a vector, eg mosquito carrying plasmodium (the organism responsible for malaria)
What are vectors?
Organisms, usually insects or ticks, that transmit parasites
Why do parasites use secondary hosts?
Parasites often have limited metabolism and cannot survive out of contact with a host
Some parasitic life cycles involve secondary hosts which allow them to complete their life cycle
eg tape worms
What is mutualism?
a specialist relationship between 2 organisms that is beneficial to both
Examples of mutualism
Ants and aphids
-some species of ants ‘farm’ aphids. They move from plant to plant and protect them from predators.
-In return the aphids secrete a sugary liquid that the ants drink
Herbivores and gut bacteria
-herbivores cannot produce cellulose-digesting enzymes
-Bacteria which can do this are found in the alimentary tract of herbivores
-These bacteria receive food and shelter and aid plant digestion
Terrestrial plants and pollinating animals
leguminous plants and rhizobium bacteria
Advantages of living in social groups
-protection
-finding mates
-help raising young
-easier to catch food
What is social hierarchy?
A rank order within a group of animals consisting of a dominant and subordinate members
eg pecking order in birds, hierarchy in wolves
What are the behaviours carried out by dominant and subordinate individuals
dominant-ritualistic (threat) displays
subordinate-appeasement behaviour to reduce conflict
Why do animals often form alliances in social hierarchies?
To increase their social status which in the group
Dominant behaviour in social hierarchies of mammals?
-teeth bared
-ears and hackles raised
-head raised and eyes staring
submissive behaviour in social hierarchies of mammals?
-ears, hackles and tail lowered
-head lowered, eyes averted
Advantages of a social hierarchy?
They improve a species survival because:
1-Aggression between members is ritualised-so real fighting is kept to a minimum and serious injury is avoided
2-experienced leadership is guaranteed
3-most powerful (and therefore ‘fittest’ in evolutionary terms) will pass on their genes to the next generation
Why do predatory mammals often hunt together as groups (co-operative hunting)?
To increase their hunting success
eg lions, wild dogs, wolves and killer whales
Advantages of co-operative hunting?
It benefits both subordinate and dominant animals because:
1-They may gain more food compared to foraging alone
2-Less energy onus used per individual
3-Larger prey can be caught and that increases their chance of success
Why do some social groups defend against predators together?
As it increases their chance of survival as some individuals can watch for predators whilst others can forage for food
eg meerkats
What do groups do when under attack?
Adopt specialised formations protecting their young
eg musk ox make defensive rings
What is altruistic behaviour?
unselfish behaviour which is detrimental (has a cost) to the donor and beneficial to the recipient
eg one meerkat standing guard while others eat
What are the two possible explanations for altruistic behaviour?
reciprocal altruism
kin selection
What does reciprocal altruism involve?
One animal giving help to another animal in prospect of the favour being returned
eg grooming to remove parasites in primates
What is kin selection?
Behaviour that appears to be altruistic can be common between a donor and a recipient if they are related
Why kin selection?
Related individuals share a proportion of their genes with their kin.
The donor will benefit in kin selection in terms of the increased chances of survival of shared genes in the recipient’s offspring or future offspring
What are social insects?
One that lives in a colony or community with other individuals of the same species
What species are social insects?
bees
wasps
ants
termites
Structure of the society of social insects
Within the society only some individuals (queens and drones) contribute reproductively
Most members of the colony are sterile workers who co-operate with other workers to raise the queen’s offspring (who are their relatives)
(An extreme example of kin selection)
example of kin selection
EXTREME EXAMPLE
social insects-sterile worker bees help to raise the queen bees young
sterile workers raise relatives to increase survival of shared genes
Roles of worker insects
-helping to raise relatives
-defending the hive
-collecting pollen
-carrying out waggle dances to show the direction of food
What type of groups do primates live in?
Social groups
What types of behaviours do primates have and how do they learn this?
complex social behaviours
They have a long period of parental care
What do primates’ complex social behaviours support?
the social hierarchy
this reduces conflict through ritualistic display and appeasement behaviour (dominant and subordinate)
What sort of behaviours do primates have
(ritualistic display and appeasement behaviour)
grooming
facial expressions
body posture
sexual presentation
Do primates form alliances?
Yes, to increase social status
What can poor welfare can also be responsible for?
• the failure in sexual behaviour resulting in low reproductive success.
• the failure of parental behaviour where animals may produce young, but reject them, and fail to act as
effective parents.
• Altered levels of activity (very high=
hysteria/low=apathy)
