Animal/Fungal/plant Diversity Flashcards
Why do we need plants
food security, green bioeconomy, healthier foods, environmental sustainability,
How can you improve productivity of a crop
conventional breeding - selecting for yield, improved arogonomy, GM (selecting traits which will increase yield)
How can we decrease waste
increasing shelf life, improving storage conditions, pests and disease, household waste
How could we adapt plants to improve food security
drought resistant, flooding tolerant, salt resistant
What % of crops are lost to pests and disease
40%
Why are biofuels bad
oil reserves are running out and fossil fuels lead to climate change
What is green bioeconomy (bio products)
plants produce a wide range of natural products which could be exploited if we purified them. Could engineer plants into biological factors.
How many people suffer from micronutrient deficiencies
2 billion
How can we increase environmental sustainability
Use resources more efficiently (reduce fertiliser and pesticide use)
Protecting biodiversity (farming damages biodiversity, plants are the key stone to the environment)
What is plasticity
it is possible for cells to undifferentiated then re-differentiate. You can regenerate a whole plant from almost any piece of tissue
What causes species to be morphologically different
their growth environment
What is a cotyledon
a leaf like structure that is formed in the embryo
What is a monocot
has 1 cotyledon (e.g., grasses, palms and orchids)
What is a dicot
has 2 cotyledons (e.g., leafy crops)
Wind pollination
Flowers structured for dispersal
Common method in monocots
Large quantities of pollen
Animal pollination
Usually insects
Brightly ‘coloured’ structures
Attractive
Benefit (e.g, nectar)
What are the 4 groups plants split up into once that had evolved
Non-vascular (liverworts, hornworts, mosses)
*Vascular, seedless (Ferns, lycophytes)
*Vascular, seeded, non-flowering (Gymnosperms)
*Vascular, seeded, flowering (Angiosperms – monocots vs dicots)
What are the 3 important taxonomical ranks of fungi
Mycota (basidiomycota)
Mycotina (agaricomycotina)
Mycetes (agaricomycetes)
What is the main component of the fungal cell wall
chitin
What is chitin
Chain formed by N – acetylglucosamine units
Where is ergosterol found
fungi cell membranes
what us ergosterol
Precursor of vitamin D2
Target for anti fungal drugs
Indicator of fungal presence in soil
What is the role of hyphae
achieve vegetative spread and absorption of nutrients. Ramify over and within the substratum (food source), Absorb small molecules directly and excrete extracellular enzymes to break down large molecules for absorbance
How are hyphae adapted for their function
long and thin to provide a large surface area to volume ratio for absorption
What allows differentation/ different activities to occur in mycelium
higher fungi tubes to be divided into compartments by cross walls (septum)
What is mycelium
arises from a germinating sperm
What is mycelia
diverging hyphae with tangenital connection to form networks
Why do hyphae spread away from each other
to optimize area explored for capture of nutrients
Why do hyphae aggregate
to form fruit bodies and other tissues/organs (e.g., pseudosclerotial plates). To form linear organs which achieve vegetative spread (cords rhizomorphs)
What can hyphae form
they grow rapidly between resources to form extensive systems that are differentiated internally to respond to new resources and the needs of the system
what do hyphae translocate
H2O and nutrients
What do fungi need
fixed C in plant/animal material because they cannot photosynthesise because they do not contain chlorophyll
What compounds can fungi use
all organic compounds used by plants and animals
How can fungi utilize organic molecules
saprotrophy, necrotrophy, biotrophy
What are the roles of saprotrophs
Nutrient cycling, Nutrient translocation, Humus formation, Soil structure and stability
types of wood decay caused by saprotrophs
stain, brown rot, white rot and soft rot
species that cause stain wood decay
Mainly ascomycetes, E.g. Phialophora spp., Ceratocystis sp., Chlorosplenium aeruginascens
species that cause brown rot wood decay
Mainly basidiomycetes, e.g. Piptoporus betulinus, Coniophora puteana, Serpula lacrimans
Species that cause white rot wood decay
Mainly basidiomycetes, e.g. Trametes versicolor, Hericium
Species that cause soft rot wood decay
Mainly ascomycetes, E.g. Chaetomium spp.
Where are hyphae found
on cell wall, in lumen so enzymes can diffuse into the wall
what compounds do fungi use for brown rot
simple compounds, cellulose and hemicellulos. Does not use lignin
What appearance does brown rot have
brown crumbly appearance
What compounds does white rot use
all compounds, including lignin
How does white rot occur
hyphae lie on cell wall in lumen. Forms erosion grooves which coalesce. Can completely decompose wood to CO2 and H2O
What compounds are utilised for soft rot
simple compounds, cellulose and hemicellulose. Lignin removal is absent or slow and incomplete
Soft rot features and importance
cell wall breakdown is much slower and less extensive. Important in wet and fluctuating moisture conditions
where does type 1 soft rot occur
In S2 layer producing cavities
Where does type 2 soft rot occur
in lumen, giving erosion grooves
How can nectrotrophs kill their host
enzymes ‘damping off’, vascular wilts, toxins (lesions discrete, spread slowly), rusts, smuts, mildews
What do necrotrophs do
abstracts nutrients, harms the plant but host lives -often extended life and kept in a juvenile condition, e.g. green islands
Mutualist of linchen
photobiont (chlorophyta or cyanobacteria) or mycobiont (ascomycota or basidiomycota)
When is biotrophy of lichens important
in many extreme terrestrial environments and for monitoring pollution
what % of plants form mycorrhizas
90
what is a mycorrhiza
symbiotic association between plant and fungus. Plants depend on fungi to form partnerships with roots
examples of mycorrhiza
angiosperms, gymnosperms, pteridophytes
orchid mycorrhizas
very small seeds with little nutrient reserve, achlorophyllous for some or even all of life. The fungi are wood decay basidiomycetes and pathogens – delicate balance
What did John Hoggs and Ernst Haeckel do in the 18000s
classified protists and eukaryotic microorganisms. Removed minerals
What did Robert Whittaker do
identified bacteria, fungi, plants and animals
What did Carl Woese do
RNA analysis. Bacteria, archaea and eukarya (3 domains)
What can classification systems be based on
morphology, nucleic acids and biogeigraphy
What are the kingdoms
animal, plant, fungi, protist, prokaryotes (archaea and bacteria)
Order of classification systems
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
What is an animal
> 10million, Multicellular, Large – bigger than protozoa, Heterotrophic, Motile (part/all post-embryonic), Polarisation along anterior-posterior locomotory axis, Epithelial cells, Ach/cholinesterase system, Monophyletic clade
How are epithelia flexible
have complex shapes, compartmentalise and are anatomically complex
How can epithelia be waterproof
held together with proteins, fluid filled spaces for support and concentration
What is the role of Ach/cholinesterase
transmits information from one cell to another (synapse)
What are the major groups of animal phyla
Sponges, Ctenophores, Placozoans, Cnidarians, Bilaterians
How many monophyletic phyla are there
33
Sponges features
n ~ 8,500, Loosely organised, No true organs, No specialised cell layers, have spicules, contain choanocytes
What are spicules
hard body elements (provide structural support)
What are choanocytes
specialised feeding cells
What are sponges niche
clean and filter water out
Placozoans niche
mediates mucociliary locomotion and nutrient uptake
Placozoans features
n ~ 2 so far, No mouth, No gut, Diploblastic (2 different types of tissue), Contractile fibre cell in the middle , Not well studied
Ctenophores niche
predators, in the marine food chain
Features of ctenophores
n ~250, Radial symmetry, Diploblastic (embryo), Ectoderm & endoderm, Mesoglea, Complete gut, 8 Ctenes
What is the mesoglea
functions as a hydrostatic skeleton - Extra cellular matrix (link together to form structurally stable composite – contributes to cells mechanical properties)
What are ctenes
band of fused cilia on the bodies of ctenophores, used for locomotion)
Examples of cnidarians
jellyfishes, sea anemones, corals
Cnidarian features
n ~ 12,500, Gastrovascular cavity – primary organ of digestion and circulation), Typically Sessile (polyp) (reproduce asexually)& Motile (medusa)(sexual reproduction) life stages
What are nematocytes
explosive cell. Shoots a thread like tubule normally toxic, to a target. Helps couture prey/ used in defence.
Cnidarians niche
use their cnidocysts to rap prey items, others depend on zooxanthallae which carry out photosynthesis within the animals tissue and pass on carbon compounds to be fixed.
What will the ectoderm form
epidermal layer of skin
What will the endoderm form
lining of the gut, liver and lungs
What will the mesoderm form
muscle, bone, kidneys, blood and connective tissue
What is the grey crescent
the site where major cell movement will begin
What will the neural ectoderm form
nervous system
What is bilateral symmetry
anatomical parts are arranged on opposite sides of a median existing so only one plane can divide the individual into identical halves
What are the 3 layers of a tripoblast
exoderm, endoderm, mesoderm
What is a protostome
The mouth id formed before the anal opening. Blastopore - mouth
What is a deutrostome
anal opening forms before its mouth. Blastopore - anal opening
What is a blastopore
first opening in the embryo (during gastrulation)
Phyla with > 15000 species which are protosomes
flatworms, annelids, mollusks, nematodes, arthropods
Phyla with > 15000 species which are deuterostomes
chordata
Flatworm features
Structurally diverse
* May be free living or parasitic
* Most of the 30,000 spp are tapeworms/flukes
* Vertebrates
* Mostly gut endoparasites
* A Lophotrochozoan (RNA)
Flatworm species
Taenia asiatica and Schistosoma Spp
Annelid features
Segmented wormlike bodies. Separate ganglia (clusters of nerve cell bodies) for each segment ( round and segmented). Thin permeable body -Gas exchange
What are lophotrochozoan
a clade of protosome animals. Tripoblastic
Mollusk species examples
octopus, squid, slugs, snails, muscles, oysters …
Features of mollusks
Most diverse lophotrochozoan. Large foot. Main organs in a visceral mass (soft, non- muscular metabolic region of the mollusc that contains the bodies organs, holds the bulk of the respiratory, reproductive, digestive etc systems). Mantle (body wall of the mollusc from which the shell is secreted) covers the visceral mass
Nematode features
Ecdysozoan group of protosomes. Roundworms (most abundant). Thick, multi-layered cuticle (Gas exchange (also with gut)). Un-segmented (Contract their body to move). Many are predators and parasites
Nematode species
Caenorhabditis elegans and Ascaris lumbricoides
What are ecdysozoans
group of protosomes (3 layered cuticle, lack locomotory cilia, embtuo does not undergo spiral cleavage)
Why do arthropods have jointed and specialised appendages
to allow for greater flexibility and a range of movement. Biramous (branches into 2)
Arthropod features
Diverse (>1.2 million sp) & Numerous. Segmented bodies. Exoskeleton (provides large surface area for muscles) - Chitin – waterproofing. Muscles on the inside. Jointed and specialised appendages
What common features do chordata share at some stage in development
dorsal hollow nerve cord, tail that extends beyond the anus and a dorsal supporting rod (notochord)
What is a dorsal hollow nerve cord
hollow bundle of nerve fibers that transverse dorsally the longitudinal axis of chordates at some stage of their life, and runs above the notochord and gut.
What benefit does chordata get from a tail that extends beyond the anus
a source of locomotion in aquatic species, located dorsally to the notochord
What is a dorsal supporting rod (notochord)
flexible, rod-shaped mesodermal structure. Located between the digestive tube and the nerve cord and provides skeletal support and flexible attachment of axial muscles. Ats a primary axial support of the body
What is included in chordata
lancelets, tunicates and vertebrates (notochord replaced by supporting structure)
Humans taxonomy
Animal (K), Chordate (P), Mammal (C), Primates (O), Hominidae (F), Homo (G), Homo sapiens (S)
