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Organisms And Their Environment > Animal adaptations > Flashcards

Animal adaptations Flashcards

1
Q

Marine fish adaptation to osmolarity

A

100 mosmol/L, conserve water, get rid of excess salts

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2
Q

Freshwater fish adaptations to osmolarity

A

1-10 mosmol/L, conserve salts, gets rid of excess water

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3
Q

Stenohaline animals

A

only survive in relatively constant conditions, narrow range of salinity, either marine or freshwater

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4
Q

Euryhaline freshwater animals. Short and long term

A

Can survive in a wide range of salinity

Short term – estuarine and intertidal

Long term – diadromous (travel between saltwater and freshwater)

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5
Q

Euryhaline anadromous animals

A

migrating up rivers from the sea to spawn

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6
Q

Euryhaline catadromous anaimals

A

migrating down rivers from sea to spawn

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7
Q

What is an osmoconformer

A

internal osmolarity matches external environment

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8
Q

Example of an osmoconformer

A

hagfish (not many others), they produce a hydrogel (fastest and most dilute) these fibers are strong and flexible.

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9
Q

What is an elasmobranchii

A

skeleton made of cartilage rather than bone

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10
Q

Characteristics of elasmobranchii

A

cartilaginous skeleton, 5-7 gill openings on each side, rigid dorsal fins, spiracles to aid in breathing, placoid scales, upper jaw is not fused to their skull

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11
Q

What phylum do elasmobranchii belong to

A

chordata

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12
Q

What compound do marine elasmobranchs use

A

trimethylamine oxide (TMAO)

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13
Q

What is ureotelic

A

the animal excrete urea e.g., marine elasmobranchs

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14
Q

What issue with marine elasmobranchs is there

A

water diffuses by osmosis from the sea (they have a higher solute concentration). They use salt and urea out of their gills - problem as gradient decreases

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15
Q

Marine elasmobranchs adaptations

A

reabsorb/retain solutes (e.g., urea), serum osmolarity greater than sea water (hyperosmotic), water gained is excreted by the kidneys, no need to drink

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16
Q

What happens to euryhaline species as salinity decreases

A

Less TMAO and urea is produced and reabsorbed, more urine, more Na and Cl uptake and reabsorption (gills and kidney)

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17
Q

What is an ammonotelic animal

A

excrete ammonia as their main form of nitrogenous waste, don’t convert to urea

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18
Q

Features of freshwater elasmobranchs

A

ammonotelic, dilute urine, cannot make and retain urea and TMAO

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19
Q

What happens as salinity increases to fresh water elasmobranchs

A

urea production and retention increases. Decreased urea excretion. Increases Na+ and Cl-. Decreases ammonia excretion

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20
Q

What does osmolarity regulation in elasmobranchs require and why

A

ATP to power Na/K pump

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21
Q

NaCl regulation in rectal gland

A

K+ channel pumps out (high conc outside the cell). Na/K/2Cl pumped in together. High sodium conc wants to move in but can only enter through that channel carrying K and Cl with it. Raises Cl concentration in cell, move it from the blood to the gut. Gets rid of excess salt

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22
Q

Marine elasmobranch gill movement of ions

A
  1. Power comes from Na/K pump
  2. Na/ urea antiporter driven by high Na concentration
  3. Na wants to move in and can only do it through antiporter
  4. When Na moves in it has to exchange with a urea out of the cell
  5. Membrane changes to conserve urea, so it does not enter the sea water
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23
Q

How is the marine elasmobranch gill membrane adapted

A

has increased cholesterol and sphingolipids in membrane so it is closely packed and stable to resist urea passing through the membrane

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24
Q

Marine elasmobranch kidney

A

Counter current multiplier mechanism. 90-95% urea reabsorbed. Probably facilitated diffusion. Urea Na pump. Collecting ducts. Powered by effect on counter current multiplier

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25
Q

How do euryhaline species differ in the kidney

A

have changes in number of urea pump - more pumps for high salinity

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26
Q

What are the 3 endocrine regulation systems

A

natriuretic peptide system, arginine vasotocin, renin angiotensin system

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27
Q

Features of the natriuretic peptide system

A

Increase urine production. Stimulate salt secretion from rectal gland. Inhibit drinking and relax blood vessels

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28
Q

Features of an arginine vasotocin system

A

increase in plasma osmolarity, reduces urine production

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29
Q

Features of a renin angiotensin system

A

antagonistic to NP, reduces urine flow, increases drinking, constricts blood vessels

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30
Q

Metabolic costs of endocrine regulation system

A

ATP required to produce urea. Dietary protein is required. System relies on adequate dietary protein

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31
Q

Characteristics of teleosts

A

fully moveable maxilla and premaxilla

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32
Q

Teleosts phylum

A

chordate

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33
Q

Freshwater osmolarity system features

A

NaCl enters through gills. Avoids losing slat to fresh water. Produces high volume of dilute urine. Conserves salt, avoids water

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34
Q

Marine osmolarity system features

A

Keep body at lower osmolarity than sea water. Drink water. Actively secrete NaCl. Produce low urine volumes. Reabsorb water from urine. Conserve water and excrete salt

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35
Q

Gill chloride cells in sea water animals

A
  1. Power comes from NKA
  2. Na powers NKCC (Na in carries 2 Cl and 1 K with it)
  3. Cl conc gets higher than the sea water (leaves through CFTR)
  4. Na leaves through gap inbetween
    5.Needs a lot of ATP
  5. Accessory cells that aid function are present
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36
Q

Gill chloride cells in fresh water animals

A
  1. Want salt into their body
  2. Power still coming from Na/K pump
  3. If you can get the Na low enough it will move in through a pump/channel
  4. NKCC, Na moves in so Cl can come in (NaCl into the cell)
  5. Na into blood, to bring NaCl in
  6. Na concentration low enough into the cell
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37
Q

Euryhaline - intertidal/eastuarine

A

both types of chloride cell systems. Kidneys only play significant role in low salinity

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38
Q

Euryhaline - diadromous

A

hormone mediated, drive adaptations

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39
Q

What can gill chloride cells do

A

can change morphology of cells and stimulate cell types to adapt them to fresh water or sea water

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40
Q

Affects of adrenaline stress response

A

increases gill permeability. Increases osmotic challenge

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41
Q

What steps can be taken to reduce impact as part of the stress response

A

adjust environment to tend toward isomotic conditions, dilute seatwer, add solute to freshwater

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42
Q

Marine mammal water losses

A

cutaneous, respiration, milk, urine, fecaes

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43
Q

Marine mammal sources of water

A

from food (can be hypotonic or isotonic with seawater), from seawater, metabolic water.

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44
Q

What do marine mammals not contain

A

extra-renal salt excreting organs

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45
Q

How can water loss be minimised

A

reniculate kidney rather than lobulate. Interconnected small kidneys, increases surface area of medulla

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46
Q

How do otriids (sea lions) maintain water balance during lactation

A

continue feeding, hypotonic prey

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47
Q

How do true seals maintain water balance during lactation

A

fasting, milk composition changes, reduce water, increase lipid

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48
Q

What other adaptations can reduce water loss

A

reduce respiratory losses (nasal turbinates, apnea). Reduced/absent sweat glands in some species

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49
Q

What is a poikilotherm

A

animal whose internal temperature varies considerably

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50
Q

What is a homeotherm

A

thermoregulation maintains a stable internal body temperature

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51
Q

What is an endotherm

A

has to use energy to keep warm in a cold environment, in a hot environment needs to use energy to keep cool.

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52
Q

What is an ectotherm

A

as the ambient temperature rises so does the body temperature, higher temperature a higher metabolic rate

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53
Q

Define adaptation

A

The evolutionary adjustment of morphology and physiology to changing environmental conditions.

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54
Q

What does natural selection do

A

adjusts the frequency of genes that code for traits affecting fitness

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55
Q

What is acclimatization

A

Based on the range of physiological responses present in an organism

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56
Q

What does phenotype plasticity do

A

gives rise to short-term changes in response to environmental disturbance

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57
Q

What are the 3 basic responses to changes in the environment

A

avoid, conform and regulate

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58
Q

how can an animal avoid changes in its environment

A

it may avoid environmental problems e.g., by migrating, or moving to unstressed micro-habitats

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59
Q

how can an animal conform to changes in its environment

A

it may change its internal state so that it is more similar to the imposed external state e.g., by hibernating or entering torpor

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60
Q

How may an animal regulate to respond to changes in the environment

A

the animal tries to maintain its internal environment (homeostasis) irrespective of external conditions. This usually requires the use of metabolic energy and/or external resources such as food and water

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61
Q

What us the thermoneutral zone

A

where the basal metabolic rate is constant

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62
Q

Adaptations to temperatures below the melting point (MP) of the body fluids in ectotherms

A
  1. Anhydrobiosis/cryptobiosis - e.g., cysts and eggs
  2. Virification
  3. Freeze tolerance – FT
  4. Freeze avoidance – FA (I.e., freeze intolerance)
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63
Q

Function of posterior hypothalamus

A

heat production and conservation centre

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64
Q

Function of anterior hypothalamus

A

heat loss centre

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65
Q

What do peripheral sensors on the skin do

A

sense temperature - gives us conscious stimulation resulting in behaviour change (e.g., putting on a coat)

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66
Q

Is internal or peripheral senses more important

A

internal sensing

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67
Q

Relationship between anterior and posterior hypothalamus

A

both sense blood temperature, when one is stimulated the other is inhibited

68
Q

Responses to temperature change

A

Metabolic rate (thyroid). Behavioral e,g., avoidance, eating, huddling. Vasoconstriction/vasodilation. Shunts. Sweating. Arrector pili muscle

69
Q

Different types of induced thermogenesis

A

exercise, diet, shivering and non-shivering

70
Q

Non-shivering thermeogenesis

A

Heat generation WITHOUT shivering. Futile cycling. Brown adipose tissue: multinocular, fat droplets spread out throughtout the cell. Lots of mitochondria. Pinky/brown - lots of blood vessels

71
Q

What activates uncoupling protein 1 and what does that uncouple

A

sympathetic nervous system (noradranline) activates UCP1 which uncouples oxidative phosphorylation

72
Q

What powers the electron transporter chain

A

Lipids - beta oxidation

73
Q

Describe the CAMP cascade

A
  1. Triglyceride release of fatty acids which is transported into the matrix of mitochondria- oxidises fats
  2. Produces electron carriers – NADH and FADH2
  3. Go to UCP1 to generate heat
  4. Fatty acids to generate heat instead of ATP
  5. Increases production of UCP1 – more they are stimulated the better they are at producing heat
74
Q

Describe oxidative phosphorylation

A

Proton gradient flows through ATP synthase to generate ATP. However different path taken – go through UCP1. Porton potential is dissipated – turning into heat

75
Q

What does brown adipose tissue respond to(BAT)

A

temperature and diet

76
Q

Diet reduced recruitment in mice

A

BAT recruiting diet -> increased voluntary food intake -> increased obesity -> chronic BAT stimulation -> BAT recruitment ->
Repeated single meals -> (increased glucose, insulin, CCK, enterostatin) -> repeated BAT stimulation

77
Q

Where is more BAT found

A

younger people, women, skinnier people

78
Q

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is…

A

hard to detect in diabetes, cold responsive, inducible?

79
Q

Function of 2,4-dinitrophenol

A

crosses the inner mitochondrial membrane and carries H+, Uncouples oxidative phosphorylation. Proton motive force dissipates. Increased O2 and NADH consumption

80
Q

Dinitrophenol side effects

A

weight loss

81
Q

What is dinitrophenol used in

A

herbicides, fungicides and explosives manufacture

82
Q

What animals have fins

A

all jawed fishes (except eels) have pectoral and pelvic fins, aquatic vertebrates

83
Q

sTRUCTURES IN WHICH FINS OCCUR SINGLY

A

DORSAL, ANAL AND CAUDAL

84
Q

Ways in which fins occur in pairs

A

pectoral and pelvic fins. Paired fins are the phylogenetic source of the tetrapod limbs

85
Q

Function of fins

A
  1. Stability - Fins projecting from streamlined body. Prevent: pitch, roll and yaw
  2. Braking action - Paired fins
  3. Steering - Control direction of movement (‘rudders’)
86
Q

What a modern fishes fins composed of

A

basal pterygiophores, radial pterygiophores and dermal fin rays

87
Q

basal pterygiophores (proximal)

A

3 large elements that articulate the fin to the pelvic or pectoral girdle

88
Q

Radial pterygiophores (middle)

A

smaller more distal elements

89
Q

Dermal fin rays (distal)

A

slender rods, keratinized in elasmobranchs, ossified or chondrified in bony fishes

90
Q

Different types of paired fins

A
  1. Ray fins – very flexible with thin base (Actinopterygii)
  2. Fin-fold fins – very broad based (chondrichthyes)
  3. Lobed fins – fleshy muscular lobe at base – makes them more flexible (sarcoptergii)
91
Q

Lobe-finned fish class

A

sarcopterygii

92
Q

What are representitives of lobe finned fish

A

coelacanth and six species of lung fish

93
Q

Sarcopterygian fish fins

A

have a central appendage in their fins containing many bones and muscles. The fins are very flexible and potentially useful for supporting the body on land

94
Q

How are the fins connected to the girdles

A

by a continuous chain of bones that are homologous to tetrapod limbs

95
Q

What are the 2 groups sarcopterygian fishes are divided into

A

crossopterygians (the coelacanths) and dipnoi (the lungfishes)

96
Q

How is forward propulsion in fish achieved

A

by lateral flexion of vertebrae caused by axial musculature

97
Q

What does the forward propulsion of fish create

A

lateral undulations - tails sweeps side to side exerting a forward and lateral force against the resistance of water

98
Q

What does the forward force do to fish movement

A

propels fish forward

99
Q

What does the lateral force produced do fish movement

A

makes the body of the fish move sideways but this is minimised by the fact that the body is large and its inertia is more difficult to overcome

100
Q

How do lateral undulations of fish help movement on to land

A

Lateral undulations and peg like fins act as pivots around which the body could rotate. “bottom-walking” of today’s lungfish use fins as pivot points about which buoyant body moves

101
Q

Lateral undulations in water

A

Propulsion through lateral undulations; Horizontally held fins -> LIFT . Vertically held fins -> THRUST

102
Q

Lateral undulations on land

A

Same lateral undulations place fins as pivot points; body rotates around pivot; limbs not as strong as tetrapods (not carrying body weight, no real locomotory function)

103
Q

What is the function of limbs

A

locomotion, tool (e.g., mole, cat)

104
Q

Evolution of limbs

A

Generally accepted that early tetrapod limbs developed from lobe-finned crossopterygians (coelacanths)

105
Q

what is the best known fossil from the transition from lobe-fins to tetrapods

A

acanthostega then tiktaalik

106
Q

Why is tiktaalik a better fossil to show this evolution

A

More primitive lobe-fins had shoulder bones that only allowed them to paddle back and forth in the water. Tiktaalik could support itself, bending its wrists to lay its hand-like bones flat on the water bottom. Its powerful ribs and spine gave it more support, and with its eyes stuck right on top of its head, it could look at prey (or predators) swimming overhead

107
Q

What does tetrapod in Greek mean

A

four footed

108
Q

What are the 4 classes of tetrapod

A

amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds

109
Q

What is the similarity between tetrapods

A

tetrapod limbs have same basic plan despite superficial differences (e.g., legs, wings, flippers)

110
Q

Describe early tetrapods

A

evolved from lobe-finned fishes. Short limbs. First segment almost horizontal. Second segment perpendicular to first (vertically down). Toes tended to point laterally

111
Q

Early amphibian terrestrial locomotion

A

to lift and plant foot è then tetrapod vertebral column rotates about the pivot point (still used by lizards and turtles)

112
Q

What new factor did lifting a limb bring

A

axial torque of vertebral column

113
Q

What movement can a primitive gait cause

A

trot - simultaneous placement of diagonally opposite feet on the ground

114
Q

How is extra stability gained

A

Buoyancy (in water)

»Tail on ground

»Belly walking (ventral surface remains in contact with ground)

Tripodal – placing tail on ground produces triangle of support:- increased stability
Lateral sequence gait also increases stability -> C of G always within triangle of support formed by 3 legs

115
Q

How can locomotion be insufficient

A

sprawled posture (in reptiles and urodeles) is inefficient energy expenditure. Overarm swing with each step, body weight supported by adductor muscles, limbs therefore drawn under body

116
Q

How has an animal been adapted for bipedalism to improve efficiency of locomotion

A

front legs modified, hind limbs lengthened and strengthened, knees rotated anteriorly to a position essentially beneath body

117
Q

What is bipedalism

A

where a tetrapod moves by means of its to rear/lower limbs

118
Q

How has an animal been adapted for four-footed gait to improve efficiency of locomotion

A

knees rotated anteriorly. Elbow rotated posteriorly and brought closer to body

119
Q

What is a four footed gait

A

each foot hits the ground independently

120
Q

What are the advantages of changed limb posture

A

1.Body weight now supported by rigid bones è decreased energy expenditure
2. Increased efficiency of limb swing è limb movement in sagittal plane - easy pendulum swing beneath body
3. Change in flexion of vertebral column from lateral flexion to vertical flexion (and extension) è increase in stride length = Quadrupedal gait!

121
Q

Modes of terrestrial locomotion

A

Cursorial, Fossorial, Saltatorial (ricochetal), Arboreal (life in trees), Brachiation, Locomotion without limbs, Unique modes of terrestrial locomotion

122
Q

Cursorial examples

A

Fast running e.g., antelope, horse, cheetah, some lizards, Carnivores

123
Q

Fossorial examples

A

Digging e.g., moles, rabbits, sand snake, some rodents

124
Q

Saltatorial examples

A

hopping e.g., kangaroo, frog, hare

125
Q

Arboreal (includes both scansorial and brachiation) examples

A

Scansorial (climbing with claws) e.g., squirrel, nuthatch. Brachiation - (hand grips branch and body swings beneath) e.g., monkeys, chimpanzees

126
Q

Locomotion without limbs examples

A

snake - Lateral undulation / serpentine, Rectilinear, Concertina, Sidewinder

127
Q

Fossorial adaptations of digging/burrowing

A
  1. Body contour (fusiform body)
  2. Reduction of tail
  3. Loss of eyes
  4. Disappearance of ears or pinnae
  5. Digging mechanisms
128
Q

Fore limbs - burrowing movements

A

Short and stout, Long claws suitable for loosening the earth. Foot serves to drive the creature ahead and to resist the backward thrust received from the hands.

129
Q

Lateral undulation - locomotion without limbs

A

Most common. Large dorsal muscles are activated sequentially along the body (Unilaterally)

130
Q

Rectilinear - locomotion without limbs

A

Straight line movement. Large snakes such as large vipers, boas, and pythons. The belly scales are alternately lifted slightly from the ground and pulled forward, and then pulled downward and backward.

131
Q

Concertina - locomotion without limbs

A

Alternately pulling up the body into bends and then straightening out the body forward from the bends.

132
Q

Sidewinder - locomotion without limbs

A

Muscle activity during sidewinding is similar to that in lateral undulation except that some muscles are also active bilaterally in regions of trunk lifting

133
Q

What is a stride

A

full cycle of running or walking animal

134
Q

What is cursorial

A

running movement - mainly about speed

135
Q

What causes an animal to travel faster

A

A faster rate of limb oscillation

136
Q

Speed formula

A

length of stride x rate of stride

137
Q

What is the relationship between length and rate of stride

A

antagonistic - enhancing one compromises the other

138
Q

How can the length of stride be increased

A

lengthen the distal limb elements. Radia and tibia are usually longer than proximal segment. Light and slim (tendons rather than muscles)

139
Q

What are the 3 types of foot posture and what do they favour

A

plantigrade (favors walking), digitigrade (favors running), unguligrade (favors running at high speed)

140
Q

How does foot posture effect length of stride

A

it alters the length of the limb

141
Q

What other adaptations can increase length of stride

A

highly mobile shoulders, absent or reduced clavicle, scapula more mobile/ oriented to the side - invcreases the distance through which the limbs move

142
Q

What animals have lateral flexion

A

lizards and amphibians

143
Q

What animals have vertical flexion

A

fast quadrupedal mamals

144
Q

What do the back muscles do

A

flex the spine bring hindquaters under the body just before the hind legs reach the ground

145
Q

What does an extended back do

A

Body longer when back extended – achieved when back feet on ground – increase in length added to stride length

146
Q

What does an increase in back flexion and extension do

A

increase rotation of girdles -> increase swing of legs -> further back and further forward -> increases stride length

147
Q

Why can a horse win over long distance against a cheetah

A

Loosely articulating vertebrae. Massive energy use to displace vertically – energy expenditure

148
Q

How to increase rate of stride

A

larger/more efficient muscles. Shortening limb

149
Q

What can increase efficiency of muscle movement

A

Lighten distal end of limb (decrease inertia that must be overcome) - reduced muscle mass, reduced digits

More easily and efficiently moved with less energy

150
Q

Why is the site of insertion important

A

If muscle shortens by same length:

Proximal insertion – moving part swings through large distance

Distal insertion – moving part swings through small distance

151
Q

How many digits do mammals have

A

1-5

152
Q

What many digits do rodents, rabbits and carnivores have

A

walk on 4

153
Q

What many digits do rhinos and tapirs have

A

3

154
Q

What many digits do pigs, sheep and camels have

A

2

155
Q

What many digits do horses have

A

primitive had 4, modern has 1

156
Q

What are gaits

A

patterns of footfall, regularly repeated sequence. Most have a variety and select use based on speed, terrain, energy efficiency and need to maneuver

157
Q

Examples of gaits

A

walk, amble, trot, pace, center, gallop, pronk and half bound

158
Q

Walk

A

4 independent footfalls

3 point support
Footfall sequence: right hind, right front, left hind, left front; repeat

159
Q

Amble

A

“sped-up walk

Transitional between a normal walk and a trot

What animals do when constrained to walking but when they want to move fast

What animals do when they are very large and can’t truly trot

160
Q

Trot

A

two-beat gait, 2 point support

Right and left diagonals alternate in supporting weight, I.e., the right forelimb and left hind limb move in unison as do left forelimb and right hind

Usually in animals with broader body (e.g., horse) or lizards with splayed legs

161
Q

Pace

A

The pace is a two-beat gait, 2 point support

The 2 lateral limbs are used alternately for weight support, I.e., the left forelimb and left hind limb move in unison, as do both right limbs

Long-legged animals (less interference between back and front leg)

Unstable in short-legged animals

e.g., camel, giraffe (horses)

162
Q

Gallop

A

The fastest of all gaits. 4 beat gait

Generally have period of suspension when: legs gathered under animals (horse), legs stretched out fore and hind (deer), both (cheetah and pronghorn)

Horse derives momentum and speed mostly from its hind limbs

Cheetah derives momentum and speed mostly from its forelimbs

Gallop type is determined by the energetic cost

Equine transverse gallop, cheetah rotary gallop

163
Q

Pronk

A

All 4 feet on ground simultaneously

Then period of suspension

Abruptly jars and decelerates the animal

Great 4 footed stability

Social display or defensive behavior

164
Q

Human locomotion

A

Bipedal

Walk to run

Economy of effort above or below 5mph

Change gaits: energetic costs at a minimum

Upright posture: fundamentally unstable – 2 supports only, large part of body weight above centre of gravity

165
Q

What are the 3 changes to achieve upright posture

A

1.Front of body lifted 30 degrees
2.Upper part of pelvis tilted back, rotating vertebral column another 30 degrees
3. Lumbar region of vertebral column curves the last 30 degrees -> upper body now upright

166
Q

Symptoms of lordosis

A

arched lower back, lower back pai, pelvis tilts forward, weak buttock muscles, bottom sticking out, hard to stand uo straight, front of hips tight

167
Q

Shape of spine/ vertebrae for humans with lower back problems/ disc problems

A

more similar to a chimpanzee

Organisms And Their Environment (9 decks)

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