Animal Cognition Flashcards
If the US and CS are repeatedly paired, will learning occur?
No, not always.
CS needs to be attended to and US needs to be unexpected/surprising
Explain the Rescorla-Wagner model.
- Explains and predicts changes in associative strength in different situations
- It is the strength of connection between internal representations of CS and US which determines the strength of CR
How do you calculate the associative strength on a trial?
Instensity of CS x (Magnitude of strength of US - CS connection)
When do you learn most about the association between the US and CS?
In the first trials compared to the later trials of an experiment.
You don’t learn an equal amount about that connection in each of your trials.
How do you work out extinction?
Maximal US - CS connection
Can the Rescorla-Wagner model explain extinction?
Yes
Can the Rescorla-Wagner model explain blocking?
Yes, with a modified formula.
𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐿= ∝𝐴𝐿𝐿( 𝜆−𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐿)
(Sum of associative strengths of all CSs and how much they collectively predict the US)
What is Thorndyke’s Law of effect?
Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will be more firmly connected to the situation.
What is instrumental conditioning?
When learning occurs best with a high-value reinforcer.
Can animals understand abstract properties (e.g. rigidity, connectedness, gravity) that explain how objects behave and use that understanding to solve problems without trial and error learning?
Trap tube task:
- Most animals fail
- Individual animals who pass seem to rely on trial and error learning about perceptual features rather than functional understanding
What negatives are there from using the trap tubes to test animal cognition?
- Inverted trap tube is not a good control as adult humans also continue to avoid the trap when not functional
- Tool is a confound but chimpanzees can pass modified versions
Do animals use insight or folk physics?
Mixed evidence using trial and error vs conditioning.
- lots of individual variation but new evidence allows reinterpretation of previous results
What methods are used to study short term memory in animals?
- habituation
- trace conditioning
- radial maze
- delayed match to sample (DMTS)
Explain habituation in animals.
- Memory of stimulus 1 formed
- If subsequent stimuli match memory for stimulus 1 then there is a small response to it
- If memory not maintained or disrupted, there is no habituation.
- Hab requires existence of memory of repeatedly presented stimulus
What is an advantage of habituation?
No training required
What is a disadvantage of habituation?
Only events that evoke a well-defined response can be used.
Explain trace conditioning.
- although learning is most effective when CS and US overlap temporarily, learning can occur when they are temporarily separated.
Explain the radial maze.
Rats either visit only one arm of the maze or all of them.
<4 hrs retention interval = rats very accurate
> 8 hrs retention interval = systematic decline in performance
What is an advantage of the radial maze?
Ecologically valid
What is a disadvantage of the radial maze?
- Time and space consuming procedure
What is the Delayed Matched to sample task?
Sample, delay, choice
What is a disadvantage of the DMTS?
Take extensive training to learn the task before a delay can be introduced.
Why do different methods produce different results?
- Complexity of stimuli
- Ecological validity
- Number of trials per day
What are the sources of forgetting?
- Proactive interference
- Retroactive interference
What is proactive interference?
Information prior to the target disrupts storage / retention of target
What is retroactive interference?
Forget due to distraction after the target
What are the 2 prominent theories of STM?
- Decay theory
- Limited Capacity theory
What is decay theory?
memory fades due to the mere passage of time
What is limited capacity theory?
resource constraints restrict the processing of information
What is primacy effect?
Recalling items better that were first in a list
What is recency effect?
Recalling items better that were last in a list
- Memory trace is the strongest
Explain serial order learning.
Long intervals: Primacy > Recency
Short intervals: Recency > Primacy
What serial order effects are shown in rats?
Rats show both primacy and recency effects
Are primacy or recency effects more common?
Recency
Why do we believe primacy effects take place?
Due to verbal rehearsal and the role of verbal rehearsal in consolidating that memory
- However animals don’t engage in verbal rehearsal because they don’t have language
What is metamemory?
Awareness of strength, accuracy, and accessibility of certain memory.
How long have pigeons LTM shown to extend to?
Above chance after 2 years
What 2 different theoretical accounts are there of LTM?
- Consolidation Theory
- Retrieval Theory
What is consolidation theory?
a time-dependent process by which recent learned experiences are transformed into long-term memory, presumably by structural and chemical changes in the nervous system
What is retrieval theory?
theory as to why we cannot recall from long term memory. The suggestion is that internal (such as mood state) and external (such as temperature and smell) cues can help facilitate recall of a long term memory
What is a neophilic?
A fondness or obsession with change - they like to go and explore novel things
What is the ecological view in comparing animal memories?
Species that depend on memory for survival will have evolved special abilities
What is the general process view in comparing animal memories?
- Similar mechanisms in all species
- Demands of ecology determine which stimuli an animal pays more attention to
What is cooperation?
A behaviour which provides a benefit to another individual.
Two or more individuals coordinate their behaviour for common or mutual benefits
What types of cooperation are there?
- Cooperation with kin
- Mutual cooperation
- Reciprocal behaviour
- Pseudo-reciprocity
What organisms cooperate with kin?
Social insects cooperate to build hives/nests, care for young, and gather food.
What is mutual cooperation?
Cooperative behaviour that provides immediate gains for all PPS
What are the roles in chimpanzee cooperative hunting?
- The driver
- The blocker
- The chaser
- The ambusher
Give examples of intentional communication.
Hand clapping
Stomping
Drumming on the bars
What is the definition of reciprocal altruism?
Cooperative strategy where individuals alternate roles as actor and recipient
Why is reciprocity demanding?
Because it requires keeping track over long periods of time
What is pseudo-reciprocity?
Individuals take part in reciprocity for a direct immediate benefit e.g. ant-butterfly mutualisms
What is the additional type of cooperation?
Helping
What is the definition of helping?
involves immediate costs for the actor and yields benefits exclusively for the recipient
What is helping behaviour?
Assisting an unrelated individual even when you receive no rewards
What are key differences in human vs non-human cooperation?
Humans are proactive and shared - we know we are working towards a shared am. But non-humans are reactive and we aren’t sure is other species can share attention.
Why do animals need to know where they are?
Need:
- A safe home
- Food
- Mates
- Need to know how to navigate between these things
What short-distance ways can animals navigate?
- Chemical Trail
- Pheromone Trail
- Urine Trail
What is route learning?
Memory chain of motor responses that are needed to go from A to b
What is dead reckoning/path integration?
- Egocentric
- Internal sense of direction and distance to goal from current position
- Keep track in relation to goal
How is distance calculated by ants?
- By the number of steps
- Direction relative to the sun
Is path integration possible without self-generated movement?
Yes in geese
- Visual info is key for keeping track of distance and direction from starting point.
How can animals use landmarks to navigate?
- Single landmarks
- Template matching
- Multiple landmarks
What is template matching?
retinal snapshot of landmark at goal
How do animals use compass bearings to navigate?
If relative position of landmark stays the same but degrees from north varied randomly in training, the bees don’t find the goal
How do animals use sun/star navigation?
- requires knowledge of the path of sun or stars
- internal clock
- many use sun compass or celestial compass
What is a cognitive map?
Internal representation of a plan of space, where spatial relationships between objects in the environment are represented
What is a topographical/network map?
Representation of familiar routes between landmarks
What is a Euclidean/vector map?
Representation of space that allows computation of direction and distance from any other place to any other know place
What theories are there for primates navigating in the wild?
- Walk in a straight line rule
- Topographical map
- Euclidean map
Explain the walk in straight line rule for primates.
Generates linea paths and in a resource-rich environment this might be effective
Explain topographical mapping in primates.
Variation in speed of travel.
Approavh known resources from same direction/via same landmarks
Most efficient in core of territory where landmarks are very well known
Explain euclidean mapping in primates.
Approach known resources from different directions.
Initial direction of travel towards recourse is not adjusted - set off on most efficient path from the start
Where are place cells?
Hippocampus
What do place cells respond to?
- specific places
- places relative to landmarks
- place in room regardless of landmarks
- does NOT respond to compass bearings
When do head direction cells fire?
- When head is in certain direction in relation to landmarks
- do NOT respond to magnetic fields or compass bearings
How do animals use cues for direction in long distance navigation?
- Magnetic fields
- Sun compass
- Polarized/UV
How do animals use cues to altitude in long distance navigation?
- Air pressure
What is homing?
Returning to home base regularly
What is olfaction?
Sense of smell
How do animals use landmarks for long distance navigation?
Useful but not necessary
What is migration?
Long distance seasonal travel (usually 2 journeys per year)
When animals move, which spatial cues do they use?
Different kinds of spatial info are processed or learnt in different circumstances
- On basis of info available decision as to direction and distance of travel taken
