Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
What is stenosis?
Heart valves damaged by infection or wear and tear.
Causes them to stiffen and narrow.
Name the left coronary arteries
Left anterior descending artery
Left circumflex artery
Name the right coronary arteries
Right circumflex artery
Posterior descending artery
What is the normal healthy range for heart rate?
60-80bpm
but could be 35-50bpm for athletes
What is the normal healthy range for stroke volume?
70-80ml
But could be 100ml+ for athletes
Which mineral is laid down in atheroma deposits?
Calcium
What is myocardial ischaemia?
Angina - could lead to heart attack
What is the optimal range for blood pressure?
(90-120)/(60-80)
> 140 systolic is high
90 diastolic is high
What effect do beta blockers have on HR and BP?
Decrease HR
Decrease BP
What effect do vasodilators have on HR and BP?
Increase HR
Decrease BP
What effect do alpha blockers have?
Relax peripheral blood vessels
Do not affect HR
How can diuretics lead to dysrrythmias?
Cause electrolyte imbalances
How do nitrates affect HR and BP?
Increase RHR
Decrease RBP
What effect do Ca channel blockers have on HR during exercise?
Increase HR during exercise
How do ACE inhibitors affect BP?
Decrease BP at rest and during exercise
How do bronchodilators affect HR?
Increase HR
How do decongestants affect BP?
Increase BP
What effects do antihistamines have?
Dry airways and cause drowsiness
What is the valsalva effect?
Forced exhalation with a closed airway
Causes fluctuations in HR and BP
What % of the oxygen in the coronary arteries does the heart use at rest?
70-80%
Describe the structure of parallel/fusiform muscles
Fascicles parallel to long axis.
Flat bands with broad attachments (aponeuroses) at end.
Plump/cylindrical
Shorten by 30% and get wider
Describe the structure of convergent muscles
Spread out over area by convergent attachment site
Pull on: aponeuroses, tendons or raphe (band collagen)
One portion stimulated can change direction of pull
Less pull than fusiform
Describe the structure of (uni) pennate muscles
Fascicles form a common angle with tendon
Pull at an angle
More tension/ more fibres
Pull less distance
Unipennate if all fibres on same side of tendon
Bipennare if both side
Multipennate if tendon branches within muscle
How long do slow twitch (type 1) muscle fibres take to maximum contraction?
40-50ms
How long do fast twitch (IIb) take to reach maximum contraction?
5ms
List some adaptations that occur during hypertrophy
Type IIa to be more like IIb
More myofibrils
More myosin/actin - new myofilaments
Increase in diameter
Recruit more type I motor units
What is the hyperplasia theory?
Alternative to hypertrophy - muscle fibres split to make more fibres
Describe dense connective tissue
Regular DRCT - smooth, white, flexible, tensile strength in one direction. Made of collagen fibres
Also irregular DICT
What does the epimysium of muscle fuse with at the tendon?
Periosteum of bone
Describe the structure of hyaline cartilage
Tough smooth and thin
Blue-white in colour
Bone ends to form joints
Slippery when lubricanted
Describe the structure of elastic cartilage
Similar to hyaline
More fibres
More elastin than collagen
Elastic
(Ear/Eustachian tube and epiglottis)
Describe the structure of fibrocartilage
Thicker, stronger
Less common
Various shapes
Shock absorber
(Meniscus in knee between discs)
Describe the structure of a ligament
Tough, white, non elastic
Prolonged tension causes damage
Bone to bone attachment
What is a motor unit?
One motor nerve and all the muscle fibres it stimulates
Which has the largest number of fibres per motor unit - slow twitch or fast twitch?
Fast twitch
Which pelvic bone bears most of the weight when sitting?
Ischium
How many ligaments are there in each hip ball/socket joint?
7 thick, short, strong ligaments per joint
How many muscular sheets make up the pelvic floor?
2-
pelvic diaphragm (deeper)
urogenital diaphragm (superficial)
Superficial transverses perinea
- Origin, insertion and use?
O: ischium
I: central tendon
Use: supports pelvis - viscera/organs
Bulbospongiosus
Origin, insertion and use?
O: central tendon
I: males - penis
Females - root of clitoris
Use- assists in emptying urethra in males
Contracts vagina
Ischiocaveronus
Origin, insertion and use?
O: ischium
I: pubic arch
Use: assists bulbospongiosus
Levator ani
Origin, insertion and use?
O: pubis and ischium
I: coccyx
Use: supports organs
Sphincter action in anal canal and vagina
What is the concentration of testosterone in males and females?
Males 10-30pg/ml
Females 0.3-2.2pg/ml
What are local and global muscles for?
Local - stabilising
Global - movement
What problems can females have with respect to hip dysfunction?
IT band syndrome
Femoral anteversion
Pronation at knees
Overpronation of foot
Anterior pelvic tilt
Lengthening is abdominal wall
What effect can the wearing of high heels have?
Shorten gastrocnemius and soleus
Knee hyperextension
Tightening of lumbar erectors and hip flexors
Shorter muscles at back of the neck
Which joints are multi-axial (3 planes)?
Shoulder (glenohumeral)
Hip
Both ball/socket
Which joints are bi-axial (2 planes)?
Condyloid (ellipsoid) -
Wrist
Metacarpophalangeal
Metatarsophalangeal
Radiocarpal
Saddle -
1st metacarpophalangeal
Which joints are unidirectional (one plane)?
Hinge- Elbow Interphalangeal Knee Talocrual (ankle)
Pivot-
Radioulnar
Atlantoaxial
Gliding -
Tarsals
Talocalceneal (subtalar)
Which is the weight-bearing bone of the lower leg?
Tibia
Describe the role of the meniscus in the knee.
To absorb shock and wear/tear.
Extra cartilage
Name the knee joint ligaments.
Medial collateral ligament.
Lateral collateral ligament.
Posterior cruciate ligament.
Anterior cruciate ligament.
Name the joints in the shoulder.
Sternoclavicular (saddle)
Acromioclavicular (gliding)
Glenohumeral (ball/socket)
On which side of the femur is the lesser trochanter?
Medial
What are condyles?
Knuckle-like processes (bone)
How long is the spine?
70cm - 33 vertebrae long
What type of bones are the 7 tarsals?
Cuboid
How many bones are there in the hand?
27 small bones 8 cuboid bones
What is carpal tunnel syndrome?
Nerves compressed, causes pain/numbness in thumb, index and middle fingers /ring finger
Describe the sacrum.
Consists of 5 fibrous, fused and immovable joints.
What do the facet joints do?
Gliding joints on either side which connect adjacent vertebrae.
Which spinal ligaments are weaker - posterior or anterior?
Posterior
Name the deep/local muscles
Transverse abdominus multifidus Internal obliques Quadratus lumborum Pelvic floor Diaphragm
Which muscles co-contract before limb movement?
Transverse abdominal and multifidus
Name the superficial/global core muscles?
Rectus abdominus Erector spinae (iliocostalis, longuissimus, spinalis)
What does isometric mean?
Contraction - no movement
Which abnormal posture has too much pelvic forward tilt?
Lordosis
What needs correcting in pelvis crossed syndrome?
Lordosis
Lumbar erector spinae and hip flexors need lengthening/stretch
Abs TA/RA, external/internal obliques and gluteus max need strengthening
Hamstrings maybe overactive
And stretch QL, MF
How do we correct a kyphotic posture?
Stretch - pecs, neck flexors, RA
Strengthen - mid/low traps, thoracic ES, look at RC
How long do we hold a static stretch for?
10-30s
15-30s if developmental
Which reflex does PNF stretching stimulate?
Inverse stretch reflex - Golgi tendon organs
Which branch of the peripheral nervous system is under conscious control?
Somatic
Which neurotransmitter is released when the parasympathetic nervous system is active?
Acetylcholine
Name four receptors in the sympathetic nervous system.
Alpha 1/2
Beta 1/2
What does the force of a muscular contraction depend upon?
Frequency of impulses
No. of units recruited
What do joint receptors do?
Give feedback on joint angle
Which muscle fibres require a large stimulus for activation?
Fast twitch
Name the six motor skills
Reaction time Balance Co-ordination Spatial awareness Speed Agility
What is agility?
The ability to rapidly change body position and direction in a precise manner.
What are the long-term adaptations of the nervous system?
New neural connections made
New neurones grown
Frequency of nerve impulses speeds up - improves synchronicity/more force
Name the two types of hormones
Peptide
Steroid
Why is the pituitary a special endocrine gland?
Lots of hormones are tropic - control other glands/hormones
What does leptin do?
Released from fat cells and reduces appetite and increases energy expenditure
What is normal blood sugar concentration?
90mg/100ml
Where do we get PCr from?
Internal production by liver/kidneys
From meat
What does lactate do to blood pH?
Acidosis produces hydrogen ions - lactate acts as a buffer
Average BMR?
70kCal/hr
How much can cardiac output increase by?
20l/min sedentary
40l/min trained
How much can coronary blood flow increase by?
250 cubic cm/min
to 1000 cubic cm/min
Which type of connective tissue is found in the:
a) fascia
b) tendons
a) dense irregular connective tissue
b) dense regular connective tissue
Explain the difference between regular and irregular collagen fibres.
Regular (tendon) - run in one direction and are good at withstanding forces in one direction. Not strong when twisted or subjected to lateral tissue.
Irregular (skeletal muscle) - run in different directions and good at withstanding forces in different directions.
How many myosin heads in a single myofibril filament?
600+
How often do myosin heads attach and reattach to actin filaments?
5 times per second
Explain the role of calcium in the sliding filament theory (contraction cycle).
It reveals a binding site on the actin filament.
How many ATP molecules are used up every time a myosin head pivots and pulls on an actin filament?
One
Where is calcium stored?
Muscle cells being replenished from blood
Also bone
Alternative names for slow twitch and fast twitch fibres?
Slow oxidative and
Fast oxidative glycolytic (FOG) - 11a Fast glycolytic (FG) - 11b
Which fibres have a lower firing threshold?
Type 1 - do not need a large stimulus to contract
Which fibres are thickest?
Type 11b
Which fibres produce the biggest force (tensile strength)?
Type 11
What happens during hypertrophy?
The number of myofibrils within a muscle fibre will increase. There is also synthesis of new actin and myosin. The new myofilaments are added to the outside of the myofibril giving it an increased diameter.
In which plane does horizontal flexion and extension occur?
Transverse plane
What type of joint is the sternoclavicular joint?
Synovial saddle joint
