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Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What changes are made to the following in Cushings Syndrome:
- BP
- fluid volume
- weight
- BGL
- Sodium
- Water
- Potassium

A

Elevated
- BP
- Fluid volume
- Weight
- BGL
- Sodium
- Water

Reduced
- Potassium

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2
Q

What changes are made to the following in Addison’s disease:
- BP
- Fluid volume
- weight
- BGL
- Sodium
- Water
- Potassium

A

Reduced
- BP
- Fluid volume
- weight
- BGL
- sodium
- water

Elevated
- Potassium

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3
Q

What is the normal range for sodium and its physiology?

A

Range
135 - 145

  • Helps maintain blood volume and blood pressure
  • Sodium causes the body to retain water
  • Brain - imbalances can lead to neuro changes
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4
Q

Name the function and normal range of potassium K+

A

Normal range
3.5 - 5 mEq/L

  • helps muscles to contract
  • Think heart muscle - imbalances can cause cardiac dysrhythmias that can be life-threatening
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5
Q

What is the normal range and function of calcium Ca+?

A

Range
9 - 11 mg/dL

  • helps with heart function, blood clotting and bone formation
  • Think bones - imbalances can lead to an increase in fractures
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6
Q

What is the normal range and function of magnesium mg?

A

Range
1.5 - 2.5

  • Helps muscles and nerves to stay healthy
  • helps to regulate energy levels
  • think calm and sedated - it acts like a sedative
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7
Q

What is the normal range and function of phosphorus P?

A

Range
2.5 - 4.5

  • helps create and maintain teeth and bones
  • helps to repair cells and body tissues
  • think teeth - helps the body use vitamins to maintain tooth and bone health
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8
Q

Name the function and normal values of chloride Cl

A

Range
95 - 105 mEq/L

  • helps maintain acid-base balance
  • helps to control fluid levels in the cells
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9
Q

What is Hypernatremia, including:
- signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Hypernatremia is an imbalance of sodium

Signs and symptoms
Na+ > 145 mEq/L
- flushed skin, restlessness, anxiety, confusion, irritability, increased BP, pitting oedema, reduced urine output, dry skin, agitation, low-grade fever, thirst

possible causes
- increased sodium intake
- loss of fluids ie. burns, fever

Treatment
- Restrict sodium intake
- administer isotonic or hypotonic solutions

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10
Q

What are the two types of hyponatremia and what are they caused by?

A

Na+ < 135 mEq/L

Hypovolemic
- reduced levels of fluid and sodium
- body loses too much fluid ie. blood or water

Hypervolemic
- increased levels of water in the body which dilutes sodium
- too much fluid in the body

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11
Q

Explain the following about Hyponatremia
- signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Na+ < 135 mEq/L

Signs and symptoms
- Stupor/coma
- Anorexia
- nausea, vomiting
- lethargy
- tachycardia
- muscle weakness
- orthostatic hypotension
- seizures or headache
- stomach cramping

possible causes
- Loss of sodium from diaphoresis, vomiting, drains, diuretics

  • Increased water and reduced sodium can lead to heart failure

Treatment
- IV hypotonic solutions
- fluid restrictions

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12
Q

Explain the following about Hyperkalemia
- Signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Potassium K+ imbalance
> 5 mEq/L

Signs and symptoms
- Muscle cramps and weakness
- urine abnormalities
- Respiratory distress
- Reduced cardiac contractility
- Reduced HR and BP
- ECG changes (peaked T wave)
- Reduced reflexes

Possible causes
- Increased potassium intake
- Adrenal gland issues
- increased acid in the blood
- NSAIDs
- Potassium-sparing diuretics (spironolactone)

Treatment
- Stop potassium intake
- administer IV sodium bicarbonate
- IV calcium gluconate
- ECG

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13
Q

Explain the following about Hypokalemia
- Signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Potassium K+ Imbalances
< 3.5 mEq/L

Signs and symptoms
- generalised weakness
- reduced reflexes
- shallow breathing
- slow GI system (constipation)
- reduced BP
- nausea and vomiting
- ECG Changes (flat T wave)

Possible causes
- Low potassium intake
- vomiting and diarrhea
- gastric suction
- alkalosis
- potassium-wasting diuretics (loop or thiazide)

Treatment
Replace the potassium
- oral supplements
- IV potassium (diluted) - infuse slowly
- ECG

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14
Q

Explain the following about Hypercalcemia
- Signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Calcium Ca+ imbalances
> 11 mg/dL

Sign and symptoms
- bone pain
- arrhythmias
- cardiac arrest (bounding pulse)
- kidney stones
- muscle weakness
- excessive urination

Possible causes
- Increased calcium absorption
- Reduced calcium excretion
- kidney disease
- thiazide diuretics
- hyperparathyroidism
- hyperthyroidism
- bone breakdown from metastatic cancer
- Increased blood concentration

Treatment
- Stop Ca+ intake
- Administer Ca+ reducing meds (phosphorus and calcitonin)

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15
Q

Explain the following about Hypocalcemia
- Signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Calcium Ca+ imbalances
< 9 mg/dL

Signs and symptoms
- Convulsions
- seizures
- cardiac arrhythmias
- tetany (involuntary muscle contractions)
- Spasms
- stridor
- numbness in fingers, face and limbs

Possible causes
- issues absorbing calcium from GI tract
- too much calcium leaving the body through excretion
- kidney disease
- diuretics
- diarrhea
- drains

Treatment
- increase calcium intake
- supplements (Vitamin D, Calcium gluconate)
- seizure precautions

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16
Q

Explain the following about Hypermagnesemia
- Signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Magnesium Mg imbalance > 2.5 mg/dL

Signs and symptoms
- reduced deep tendon reflexes
- lethargy
- Reduced HR, BP, RR, bowel sounds
- Shallow breathing

Possible causes
- Increased magnesium intake
- antacids
- Excessive IV magnesium administration
- Renal insufficiency
- reduced excretion increasing levels in the blood
- diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

Treatment
- Administration of loop diuretics
- reduced magnesium in the diet
- IV calcium chloride or calcium gluconate
- avoid laxatives and antacids containing Mg

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17
Q

Explain the following about Hypomagnesemia
- Signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Magnesium Mg Imbalances < 1.5 mg/dL

Signs and symptoms
- Increased deep tendon reflexes
- Increased HR, BP
- Shallow respirations
- Twitches
- seizures
- irritability
- confusion

Possible causes
- Insufficient Mg intake
- Malnutrition
- Vomiting, diarrhea
- malabsorption syndrome
- chrones or celiac
- Increased Mg excretion (diuretics)
- Alcoholism
- sepsis
- hyperglycemia
- Insulin administration

Treatment
- Administration of IV or PO magnesium sulfate
- Increased intake of Mg containing foods
- seizure precautions

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18
Q

Explain the following about Hypophosphatemia
- Signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Phosphorus P imbalances < 2.5mg/dL

Signs and symptoms
- fatigue
- weakness
- delayed growth in kids
- poor bone density
- frequent fractures
- loss of appetite
- cardiac arrhythmias

Possible causes
- Chronic vomiting or diarrhea
- over-consumption of diuretics
- significant burns
- ETOH dependency
- Malnutrition
- Starvation refeeding syndrome

Treatment
- Increase phosphorus in diet
- administer IV or PO phosphorus
- reduce use of diuretics
- Reintroduce nutrients slowly
- proper care of burns

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18
Q

Explain the following about Hyperphosphatemia
- Signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Phosphorus P imbalances > 4.5 mg/dL

Signs and symptoms
- directly leads to low Ca+ levels
- muscle spasms
- tetany
- cardiac arrhythmias
- seizures
- dry brittle skin and nails

Possible causes
- Kidney dysfunction
- consistent use of enemas or laxatives
- Vit D toxicity
- Hypoparathyroidism
- Acromegaly (pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone)
- Rhabdomyolysis (muscle breakdown)

Treatment
- Reduced phosphorus in diet
- dialysis
- control hypertension for kidney function

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19
Q

Explain the following about Hyperchloremia
- Signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Chloride Cl imbalances > 105 mEq/dL

Signs and symptoms
- hypertension
- fluid retention
- generalised swelling
- peripheral oedema
- cardiac arrhythmias

Possible causes
- Hypernatremia (increased sodium)
- overuse of sodium chloride
- metabolic acidosis
- renal damage
- dehydration
- uncontrolled BGL
- Diabetic insipidus

Treatment
- Reduce sodium in diet
- increase fluid to flus out salt
- PO or IV fluids
- BGL and Insulin management
- Dialysis (renal disease)

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20
Q

Explain the following about Hypochloremia
- Signs and symptoms
- possible causes
- treatment

A

Chloride Cl Imbalance < 95 mEq/dL

Signs and symptoms
- Hypotension
- tachycardia
- mental status changes
- muscle weakness
- fatigue

Possible causes
- dehydration
- vomiting or diarrhea
- overuse of diuretics
- Addisons disease (adrenals don’t produce enough hormone cortisol)
- metabolic alkalosis
- potassium imbalance

Treatment
- Increase salt intake
- administration of IV potassium
- administration of IV sodium chloride
- rehydration
- limit/reduce diuretic use

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21
Q

Explain the following about IV therapy complications - Air Embolism
- Pathology
- Symptoms
- treatment

A

Pathology
- entry of air into the vein through IV tubing

Symptoms
- tachycardia
- chest pain
- decreased conscious state
- hypotension
- cyanosis
- dyspnea or couch

Treatment
- clamp tubing
- turn patient to left side
- Notify NUM and Doctor

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22
Q

Explain the following about IV therapy complications - Infiltration
- Pathology
- Symptoms
- treatment

A

Pathology
- Leaking of IV fluids into surrounding tissue

Symptoms
- at the site - pain, swelling, coolness, numbness
- No blood return

Treatment
- Remove the IV
- Elevate the extremity
- Apply warm or cool compress
- Avoid rubbing the area

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23
Q

Explain the following about IV therapy complications - Infection
- Pathology
- Symptoms
- treatment

A

Pathology
Entry of microorganism into the body via IV causing infection

Symptoms
- Tachycardia
- redness
- swelling
- chills or fever
- malaise (discomfort)
- nausea and vomiting

Treatment
- remove the IV
- obtain cultures
- notify Dr as may need antibiotics

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24
Explain the following about IV therapy complications - Circulatory overload - Pathology - Symptoms - treatment
Pathology - Administration of fluids too rapildy - fluid volume overload Symptoms - Increased BP - Distended neck veins - dyspnea - wet couch and crackles Treatment - reduce flow rate of IV - Elevate head of bed - keep patient warm - Notify NUM and doctor
25
Explain the following about IV therapy complications - Plebitis - Pathology - Symptoms - treatment
Pathology - Inflammation of the vein - can lead to a blood clot Symptoms - Heat - Redness - Tenderness - reduced flow rate of IV Treatment - Remove IV - notify NUM - restart IV on opposite side
26
Explain the following about IV therapy complications - Hematoma - Pathology - Symptoms - treatment
Pathology Collection of blood in the tissue Symptoms - Blood - Hard and painful lump -Ecchymosis (discolouration) Treatment - elevate the extremity - apply pressure and ice
27
Answer the following about Hypovolemia: - Pathology - causes - signs and symptoms - LABS - Treatment
Pathology - low volume in the blood - dehydration, fluid volume deficit = hypovolemic shock Causes - loss of fluid from anywhere ie. hemorrhage, vomiting, diarrhea, burns, polyuria Signs and symptoms - Flat neck veins - Increased HR, RR, Urine output - Decreased BP, Weight, Skin turgor - thirst - dry membranes LABS - Increased Urine Specific Gravity - increased hematocrit % - Increased sodium serum - Increased BUN Treatment - PO or IV fluid replacement - daily weigh - orthostatic hypotension falls risk
28
Answer the following about Hypervolemia: - Pathology - causes - signs and symptoms - LABS - Treatment
Pathology - High volume of blood - Overhydrated - fluid volume excess Causes - Heart failure - kidney dysfunction -cirrhosis of the liver - increased sodium intake Signs and symptoms - jugular vein distension - Increased HR - bounding - Increased BP, Weight, Oedema, Polyuria - Wet lung sound (crackles) LABS - Reduced Urine Specific Gravity - Reduced Hemoatocit % - reduced serum sodium - reduced BUN Treatment - low sodium diet - daily weigh - diuretics - high-fowlers or semi-fowlers position to help with breathing
29
Explain the following neurotransmitter Acetylcholine: - Function - low levels - high levels
Function - learning and retaining information - attention span - muscle movements Low levels - Alzheimers - Memory loss - dementia High levels - depression - anxiety - muscle paralysis
30
Explain the following neurotransmitter Dopamine: - Function - low levels - high levels
Function - mood and pleasure sensation - Libido - sleep habits - physical movements and motions Low levels - Parkinsons - Depression - Fibromyalgia - Lack of motivation High levels - Schizonphrenia - Hallucinations - Bi-Polar disorder - Manic episodes
31
Explain the following neurotransmitter Norepinephrine: - Function - low levels - high levels
Function - Attention span - mood - motivation - energy - concentration Low levels - Depression - ADHD - Postpartum depression High levels - Increased anxiety - Panic attacks - Over stimulation
32
Explain the following neurotransmitter Epinephrine - Adrenaline: - Function - low levels - high levels
Function - Concentration and focus - survival mechanisms Low levels - Lethargy - lack of concentration - lack of motivation High levels - Anxiety - Panic attacks
33
Explain the following neurotransmitter Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA): - Function - low levels - high levels
Function - Sleep regulation - feeling calm - stimulation and brain activity Low levels - schizophrenia - anxiety - panic disorders - PTSD High levels - Improved concentration - Anxiety reduction - sleep disorders and hypersomnia
34
Explain the following neurotransmitter Glutamate: - Function - low levels - high levels
Function - Memory - nerve health and transmission Low levels - ADHD - Fatigue - poor energy High levels - restlessness - anxiety and panic - insomnia - pain disorders
35
Explain the following neurotransmitter Serotonin: - Function - low levels - high levels
Function - Mood regulation - sleep - libido Low levels - depression - fatigue - anxiety high levels - improved mood
36
Which organs are effected by hypertension (HTN) and how?
Eyes - visual changes - blurred vision - damage to blood vessels in retina Brain - Hemorrhage shock - weak/narrow vessels leading to rupture Heart - Congestive heart failure (CHF) - Overworking of heart muscle - ventricle enlarges Kidney - Renal failure - too much blood flowing to kidneys at a fast rate and high pressure
37
Explain the parts of the ECG waveform PQRST
P wave - atrial contracting - depolarising = decompressing PR interval - time between atrial depolarisation and ventricular depolarisation QRS Interval - Ventricle contracting T wave - Ventricle relaxing - repolarisation = relaxing and refilling
38
Explain sinus bradycardia - physiology - Rate - causes
Physiology - Sinus node creates an impulse at a slower rate than normal (60-100 bpm) Rate < 60 Causes - Lower metabolic needs - hypothyroidism - vagal stimulation - medications (CCB, BB, Amiodarone)
39
Explain sinus tachycardia - physiology - Rate - causes
Physiology - sinus node creates impulses at a faster rate than normal (60-100bpm) Rate > 100 bpm Causes - physiological or psychological stress (blood loss, fever, exercise, dehydration, infection, sepsis) - certain medications - heart failure - cardiac temponade - hyperthyroidism
40
What are the main parts of the endocrine system?
Pituitary gland - stimulates - Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - which creates - Calcitonin OR Triiodothyronine (T3) OR Thyroxine (T4)
41
What is the function of the endocrine system?
The endocrine system is made up of glands and organs that release hormones. These chemical messages carry information and instructions from one cell to another
42
What are the three glands within the endocrine system?
Thyroid Gland - thyroxine (T4) - Triiodothyronine (T3) - Calcitonin Parathyroid Gland - parathyroid hormone (PTH) Adrenal gland Adrenal cortex - aldosterone - cortisol Adrenal medulla - epinephrine (adrenaline) - norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
43
What is the function of the adrenal glands - Adrenal cortex - adrenal medulla
Adrenal Cortex - Aldosterone (mineralcocorticoid) - helps fluid balance - Cortisol (glucocorticoid - stress hormone) - helps regulate metabolism, increases BGL, lowers inflammation Adrenal Medulla - Epinephrine (adrenaline) - Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) -- catecholamine (stress hormone) released with BP lowers. Helps with acute stress
44
What is the function of the adrenal glands - Thyroid gland - Parathyroid gland
Thyroid - Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) -- created and stored in thyroid -- maintains body metabolism - calcitonin -- secreted by the thyroid to regulate calcium in the body Parathyroid - Parathyroid hormone (PTH) -- helps to increase serum calcium in the blood
45
What hormones are secreted by the - hypothalamus - Testes - Ovaries - Pancreas
Hypothalamus - Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) - Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) - Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GRH) - Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) Testes - testosterone Ovaries - Estrogen - progesterone Pancreas - Insulin - Glucagon
46
What do the hormones of the pancreas do?
Insulin - works to decrease BGL - puts sugar and potassium into cells to be used later as energy Glucagon - works to increase BGL - breaks down stored glucose (glycogen) in the liver
47
What hormones function in the following organs? - Testes - Ovaries
Testes - Testosterone - helps in the development of male sex organs and reproductive tissue Ovaries - Estrogen - helps regulate the menstrual cycle, stimulates uterus growth during pregnancy, maintains pregnancy and support the fetus as it grows - Progesterone - helps regulate menstrual cycle, stimulates growth hormone of maternal tissues and fetal organs during pregnancy
48
What are the hormones of the Pituitary Gland?
Anterior - Luteinizing hormone (LH) - Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - Prolactin - Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - Growth hormone (GH) - Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Posterior - Oxytocin - Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
49
What is the negative vs positive feedback loop of the endocrine system?
Negative feedback - Hormone increases therefore additional hormone is inhibited - hormone reduces therefore production of hormone increases Positive feedback - Increase of hormone causes another variable to increase, which causes the hormone to increase even more ie. oxytocin in childbirth
50
What is the purpose and pathway of the Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System (RAAS)?
Purpose - helps regulate BP, systemic vascular resistance, and electrolyte balances Pathway - reduced BP - sympathetic nervous system is stimulated - kidneys release renin - activates angiotensinogen (created by the liver) - creates angiotensin I ACE converts Angiotensin I into Angiotensin II - angiotensin II acts on smooth muscle constricting blood vessels and increasing blood volume - BP increases
51
Answer the following about Hyperglycemia: - Pathology - Onset - Risk factors - Signs and symptoms - Treatment
Pathology - Increased blood sugar >8mmol Onset - gradual - hours to days Risk - steroids, sepsis, stress, skipping insulin, not eating a diabetic diet Signs and symptoms - polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, dry mouth, fruity breath, numbness, vision changes, deep rapid breathing, hot and dry skin Treatment - Insulin - test urine for ketones - diabetic diet
52
Answer the following about Hypoglycemia: - Pathology - Onset - Risk factors - Signs and symptoms - Treatment
Pathology - Reduced blood sugar <4mmol Onset - sudden Risk - exercise, alcohol, rapid-acting insulin, skipping meals Signs and symptoms Palpitations, diaphoresis, shakiness, headaches, fatigue, confusion, coma, cold and clammy skin Treatment - Eat carbohydrates - recheck BGL - if unconscious - IV 50% dextrose or glucagon
53
Answer the following about Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) - Pathology - Signs and symptoms - Risk factors - Treatment
Pathology - Not enough insulin, body cannot get blood sugar into cells, blood sugar is very high, cells breakdown protein and fat, ketones build up = acidosis Risk - Stress (surgery), sepsis, skipping insulin, stomach virus, undiagnosed diabetes Signs and symptoms - increased BGL, abrupt onset, metabolic acidosis, Kussmaul respirations (fruity breath) Treatment - IV Infusion with potassium K+ (DKA - remember to monitor K+levels) - Fluid replacement - IV - Correction of electrolyte imbalances - Administration of bicarbonate for metabolic acidosis (only used for DKA)
54
Answer the following for Diabetes Insipidus (DI): - Pathology - Risk factors - Treatment - Medications
Pathology - Not enough anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) = losing water Risk factors - head trauma, brain tumor, infections of CNS (meningitis, encephalitis, TB), manipulation of pituitary gland, surgical ablation, craniotomy, sinus surgery, or hemispherectomy Signs and symptoms - High urine output (diluted), dehydration, dry mucosa, reduced skin tugor, increased thirst, reduced BP, Increased HR, low urine specific gravity (<1.005), high serum sodium, muscle pain and weakness, fatigue, headache Treatment - Administration of IV therapy (hypotonic solution) - Provide safety precautions due to postural hypotension Medications - ADH Replacement = vasopressin
55
Explain COPD - Chronic Bronchitis
- Chronic productive cough and sputum production for > 3 months - mucus secretion - airway obstruction (inflammation) Signs and symptoms - overweight or obese - peripheral oedema - cyanosis from hypoxia - Chronic cough - wheezing
56
Explain COPD - Emphysema
- Alveoli are damaged and enlarged and lose their elasticity - results in loss of tissue recoil and air trapping Signs and symptoms - weight loss - hyperinflation of the lungs (barrel chest) - shortness of breath and severe dyspnea
57
Answer the following for COPD - Diagnostics - Pathology - Risk factors
Diagnostics - Arterial blood gases - chest x-ray - pulmonary function test - spirometry Pathology - progressive pulmonary disease that causes chronic airflow obstruction (emphysema or chronic bronchitis) Risk Factors - Smoking, harmful irritants, infection, second hand smoke, occupational exposure, air pollution, genetic abnormalities asthma, severe respiratory infection in childhood
58
What is a tension pneumothorax?
A Medical Emergency! Pathology - Complications of a pneumothorax - occurs when the opening to the pleural space creates a one-way valve, then collects air in the lung space, and air cannot escape. Air pressure build-up. Sign and Symptoms - Jugular vein distension (JVD) - Compression on the heart (tachycardia, hypotension, chest pain) - compression on the other lung - Tracheal shift Treatment - Needle decompression - Chest tube drain
59
What is a pneumothorax?
Pathology - Lung collapse due to a collection of air in the pleural space Risk factors - Blunt or penetrating trauma (gun shot, stab wound) - medical procedure (central line placement) Treatment - Chest tube drain
60
What is a hemothorax?
Pathology - Lung collapse due to a collection of blood in the pleural space Risk factors - Chest trauma - Chest surgery - Repetitive chest injuries - Blood clotting deficits - lung infections Treatment - Chest tube drain
61
Answer the following about Pneumonia - Pathology - Types - Signs and symptoms - Risk factors - Diagnostics - Patient Education
Pathology - lower respiratory tract infection that causes inflammation of the alveoli sacs = impaired gas exchange Types - Community acquired (CAP) - Hospital acquired (HAP) - Healthcare associated (HCAP) - Ventilator associated (VAP) - Aspiration Signs and symptoms - productive cough - trouble breathing - Increased RR - Increased HR - Crackles heard in the lungs - Chest pain - Fever >38 - Sweating and or chills Risk factors - Prior infection, immobility, immunocompromised (HIV, Autoimmune infections), smoking, lung disease (COPD), recent surgery, aspiration risk Diagnotics - Increased white blood cells - Chest x-ray - sputum culture Patient Education - Use of incentive spirometer - Up to date vaccinations - stop smoking - hand washing and avoiding sick people
62
Answer the following about Chest Tubes - what is it? - what is it used for? - nursing considerations
What is it? - a tube that is inserted into the pleural space to remove fluid, blood or excess air and to help the lung to reexpand. What is it used for? - Spontaneous pneumothorax - after thoracic surgery - during cardiac surgery - Pneumothorax - Hemothorax - Pleural effusion - Infection Nursing considerations - Always keep the system below the patients chest - Never strip or milk the tubing - never clamp the tubing - encourage the patient to take deep breaths - Report bright red blood (dark blood is expected) - Monitor for colour, quantity, lung sounds, insertion site, and occlusive dressing for moisture

Nursing RN (6 decks)

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