Anatomy + Physiology Flashcards
Chemical elements in body w/ %
O - 65
C - 18.6
H - 9.7
N - 3.2
Atoms
Smallest stable unit of matter.
Electron cloud
Orderly series of energy levels. Hold certain amount of electrons
Isotopes
Varieties of elements that differ in number of neutrons
Molecule
Chemical particle comprising two or more atoms in a chemical bond
Compound
Molecule w/ two or more DIFFERENT elements
Molecule
A chemical particle comprising two or more atoms in a chemical bond
Molecular formula vs structural formula
Molecular: Identifies elements and numbers of atoms present
Structural: Identifies location of elements
Ionic, covalent and Hydrogen bonds
Ionic: Charged particles w/ unequal number of protons and electrons
Covalent: Sharing electrons occupying single energy shells comon to both atoms
Hydrogen: Weak attraction between slightly +ve H and -ve O or N
Mixtures
Physically blended, not chemically combined. Eg body fluid.
Water properties
Polar covalent bonds. Solvency, cohesion, adhesion, thermal stability, chemical reactivity
Adhesion
Tendency of different molecules to bond with each other eg water to large membranes to reduce friction around organs
Cohesion
Force of attraction between same molecule. eg film on water surface due to molecules held together with surface tnesion
Chemical Reactivity
Ability to participate in chemical reactions. H20 involved in hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis
Thermal Stability
Helps stabilities internal body temperature. Calorie: Amount of heat that raises temperature of 1g of H2o by 1 degree
Solutions
Particles mixed with an abundant substance called solvent
Colloids
In body and often mixtures of protien w/ h20. - gel to liquid states
Suspension
To large to penetrate selectively permeable membrane eg blood cells in plasma
Acids vs Bases
Acid: Proton donor
Base: Proton acceptor (release oh-)
pH
Measure derived from the molarity of H+. 7 (Neutral), less than 7, acidic, more than 7, basic. (LOGARITHMIC SCALE)
Buffers
Chemicals that resist changes in pH
Energy
Capacity to do work - building molecules or contracting muscles.
Types of energy
Potential energy (Stored in an object). Kinetic energy (in motion eg Heat).
Types of chemical reactions
Decomposition:: large molecule -> small
Synthesis: Small molecule -> large
Exchange: Two molecules exchange atoms/groups
Catabolism + Anabolism
C: Energy releasing (EXERGONIC) Decomposition reaction. breaks covalent bonds.
A: Energy storing (ENDERGONIC) synthesis reactions
Redox
Oxidation of one molecule = reduction of another. Electrons trasnfered as hydrogen atoms
Carbon compounds
Four valence electrons binds to other atoms. Carbon bacbones - forms long chains.
Carbohydrates
Hydrophilic organic molecules (starch, sugar)> (CH2O)n, n= number of carbon atoms. Glucose n = 6. (C6H12O6). 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen.
Conjugated Carbohydrate
covalently bound to lipid or protein moiety
Lipids
Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrophobic moleculs w/ high ration of hydrogen to oxygen (1:2 carbon to hydrogen). More calories per gram than carb. Better for energy storage.
Tryglycerides
neutral fats, three fatty acids linked to glycerol. Formed by Dehydration synthesis.
Fatty Acids
4-24 carbon atoms with carboxyl group. Saturated - 4 carbon bonds. Unsaturated - 1 or more double bonds. Polyunsaturated - multiple double bonds. ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS MUST BE OBTAINED VIA FOOD
Steroids
17 carbon atoms in four rings. Cholesterol - parent steroid. Roles in nervous system function and structural integrity of cell membranes. 15% of cholesterol comes from diet, 85% from liver. Eg. estrogen, testosterone
Protien
Polymer of Amino acids
Amino Acids
Centeral carbon with three attached amino groups, carboxyl group and Radical group. 20 amino acids used to make protien
Peptide
Molecule comprising two or more amino acids by PEPTIDE bond (Two amino groups of one amino acid w/ carboxyl group (Dehydration synthesis)
(Protien) Primary structure
Sequence of amino acids which is encoded in genes
(Protien) Secondary structure
Coiled/folded shapes w/ hydrogen bonds
Tertiary structure
Further bendign and folding into globular and fibrous shapes to to hydrophobic/philic and van der walls forces
Enzymes
Protiens that fucntion as biological catalysts. Substrates attaches
NAMING ENZYMES
Ase suffix. Amalayse
Enzyme process
↔Approaches active site, bind together, enzyme, substrate = lock and key. Enzyme releases reaction products, unchanged to repeat process.
Cell shapes
Squamous (thin and flat), cuboidal (cube shaped), Columnar (taller than wide), Fusiform (thick in middle, tapered ends)
Plasma cell membrane
Surounds cell and defines boundaries - protein and lipids
Cytoplasm
Organelles, cyutoskeleton, inclusions, cytosol.
Extracellular fluid
Fluid outside cells (includes tissues)
Nucleus
Largest organelles. Usually 1 nucleus. (Anuclear or multinucleate)
Nuclear Envelop
The double membrane around the nucleus. - Nuclear pores and regulate molecular traffic
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (ACTG) Double strand
RNA
Ribonucleic acid (ACGU) Single strand
Mitochondria
Organelles specialized for synthesising atp. Double membrane (inner - cristae)
Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
Parallel flattened sacs covered w/ ribosomes. Produces phospholipids and proteins of plasma membrane.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Lacks ribosomes. Cisternae more tubular and branching. Countinuing off Rough endoplasmic reticulum. Makes steroids and lipids.
Ribosomes
Small granules of protien and RNA. Found in nucleoli and on Rough ER. Reads genetic messages from mRNA and assembles amino acids
Golgi Complex
Systems of cisternae that synthesises carbohydrates and completes protein synthesis
Lysosomes
Package of enzymes bound by membranes. Generally round by variable in shape. Intracellular hydrolytic digestion of proteins.
Peroxisomes
Like lysosomes but contains different enzymes and are produced by ER. uses molecular O2 to oxidise organic molecules
Peroxisomes
Like lysosomes but contains different enzymes and are produced by ER. uses molecular O2 to oxidise organic molecules
Proteasomes
Hollow cylindrical organelles that dispose of surplus proteins. Break down tagged targeted proteins to make peptides/ amino acids
Centrioles
Short cylindrical assembly of microtubes. 9 groups with three microtubules in each. Helps cell division
Inclusions
Stored cellular products or Foreign.
Flagella
Tail of sperms. Whip like structure.
Pseudopods
Continually changing extensions of the cell - used for locomotion
Plasma cell membrane
Boarder of the cell. Selectively permeable lipid bilayer Made up of Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates
Membrane Lipids
75% are phospholipids. hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails.
20% cholesterol. Holds phospholipids still.
5% glycolipids contributes to glycocalyx.
Membrane proteins (Peripheral and Intergral)
2% of molecules but 50% of the weight. Integral and Peripheral.
Peripheral: Adhere to one face of the membrane.
Integral: Penetrate membrane.
Second Messengers
Receptor Activates G protein that obtains energy from Guanosine triphosphate. Relays signal to adenylate cyclase which converts ATP to cAMP
Glycocalyx
Fuzzy coat external to the plasma membrane. Carbohydrate Moieties (little pieces)
Microvilli
Made of microfilaments to increase surface area. Used for Absorbtion
Cilia
Made of microtubules to function in movement. Hair like. (ear, nose, airway)
Cytoskeleton
Network of protein fibres to determine cell shape and movement within cells
Filtration
Particles given through emmbrane by physical pressure. Eg filtration of water + small solutes through gaps in capillary walls. Driven by hydrostatic pressure
Simple Diffusion
net movement of particles from high concentartion to lower concentration - due to constant spontaneous molecular motion. Molecules collide and bounce of one another. Substances diffuse down their concentration gradient. Does not require a membrane. Substance can diffuse through membrane if membrane is permeable to the substances
Osmosis
Net flow of h20 through selectively permeable membrane. Moves from more concentrated to less concentrated.
Carrier Mediated Transport
Transport protiens in membrane caryr solutes in/out of cell or organelle (specific) Uniport, symport, antiport.
Facilitated Diffusion
Mcgraw diagram 3,18
Primary Active Transport
Carrier moves solute through membrane up its concentration - uses ATP. Eg Sodium potassium pump
Secondary Active Transport
Carrier moves solute through the membrane but uses atp indirectly. Sodium-glucose transporter
Cellular respiration
Conversion of nutrients into a form usable by cells. - achieved by the production of ATP
High energy bonds = ATP
Connect a phosphate group of one compound to another. Formation of ATP or addition of free phosphate molecule to another molecule
Formation of high energy bonds - ATP
Start with nitrogenous base.
ADD Ribose molecule + phosphate group
Adonenie (mono, di, tri etc) phosphate
ATP
Most important energy transfer molecule. stores energy fron exergonic reactions. Holds energy in covalent bonds and quickly releases that energy from work
Formation of ATP
ENergy storer. ANabolsim - uses energy. Requires an enzy,e (ATP synthesase)
Hydrolysis of ATP
Catabolism - releases energy. Requires enzyme (Adenosine triphosphate). Enzyme breaks 3rd high energy phosphate bond. Separates ATP into ADP and P + energy
Oxidation
Loss of hydrogen or gain of oxygen. Looses electrons
LEOA
GERC
remember that? thats y12 work
dumbarse
Oxidation/reduction reactions and coenzymes.
Catalysted by enzyme
H removed- dehydrogenases
o is added -oxidases.
Both require coenzymes.
NAD+
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (vitamin b)
NAD+ + 2H+ -> ADH + H+
FAD
Falvin adenine dinucleotide
FAD + 2H+ -> FADH2
Mitochondria energy protuction
Double membrane. Outer surounds organelle. The inner is folded (cristae). enzymes in the matrix (Fluid inside) catalyze reaction to produce energy
ATP synthesis
Substrate level phosphorylation.
Oxidative phosphyloration
Substrate level phosphorylation
Atp is formed from ADP by adding a phosphate group. Occurs in glycolysis and krebs cycle
Glycolysis
Splitting glycose into 2 pyruvates. If ATP demand outpaces o2, supply pyruvate ferments to lactate. if enough o2 is present, aerobic respiration occurs
2 x 3-carbon molecules of pyruvic acid.. Converted to lactic acid if 02 not avaliable. Enter aerobic pathway if avaliable.
NADH + H+ -> NAD+ + H2. NBeg gain of 2 ATP
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Generates ATP, CONSUMES atp and coenzymes are required. Occurs in mitochondria. (electron transport proteins) Hydrogen Atom splits into h+ and electrons. Electrons transfer across membrane + loose energy. Released energy via h+ pump between mitochondrial membranes. Energy captured from H+ flowing through atp synthase.
Electron transport system
Cytochromes pass H + e- to oxygen to make h20. Generates ATP. Primary source of H20 (metabolic).
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Dietary carbs burned as fuel within a few hours of consumption. High energy bonds from carbs (glucose). 1 glucose molecule makes 26 molecules of ATP
Glucose Metabolism
Starts in the cytosol/plasm with glycolysis (sugar breaking). Takes palce w/ w.o. o2. Each glucose molecule = 2 pyruvic acid molecules. acid enters mitochondria and co2 is removed. Remained goes to Krebs cycle.
Major phases of glycolysis
Sugar activation:Gkucose is phosporlyated and uses 2 atp. energy stored
“ cleave: split into 3 carbon fragments
oxidation + ATP: Removal of h and phosphate group attached.
Krebs Cycle
Some of the original energy from glucose is ATP and NADH. lost as heat. Most of the energy remains in pyruvate (chemical bonds).
Presence of o2 breaks down pyruvic acid. Enzymic pathway - to produce more ATP. Removes H from organic molecule and transfers to Coenzymes. Accept electrons from one molecule and givces to another
Coenzyme A
Involved in the metabolism of carbon sugars. Joins 2 C molecules in Pyruvate. Activated form of acetic acid. Moves to Krebs cycle. 2 C molecules join with 4 already in cycle. 6 c = citric acid
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
ATP is made from ADP by adding a phosphate group. 4 carbons are resynthesised making another NAD in the cycle to make NADH and FAD. uses 1 pyruvate.
Electron transport system
The remaining energy from glucose is released via e- transport train. The nadh and fadh work w/ enzymes (oxidation. Max number of ATP is 32-34. GLycolysis takes place in cytoplasm. Krebs takes place in mitochrondia
Anaerobic Fermentation
Absence of o2 can generate atp by glycolysis. needs supply of NAD+ (donates e- to pyruvate) - makes lactate. which travels to liver. o2 avaliable lactate changes back to pyruvate.
Lipid metabolism
Tryglicerides stored in adipocytes (turnover 2/3 weeks). released into bloodstreem and transported or oxidised into other fat cells
Lipogenesis
Synthesis of fat from other types of molecules. Amino acids and sugars used to make fatty acids and glycerol.
Lipolysis
Fatty acids enter mitochondria. Broken down into carbon fragments that can be unces in Beta oxidation.
Tissues
Group of similar cells and cell products that perform specific roles in organs
Organs
Structure with discrete boundaries. Comprising two or more tissue types
Histology
Study of tissues and how they are arranged in organs
Tissue Examination
Cross section - longitudinal, cross and oblique
Primary tissue classes
Epithelial, connective, nervous, muscle
Cell junctions
Connects between two cells. Anchored to each other or to their matrix. Communicate with one another
Tight junctions
Linkages between cells aby transmembrane cell-adhesion proteins
Desome
‘Patch’ that hodls cells together - like a peg Resist mechanical stress
Hemidesmosomes
Anchor basal region of cells to basement membrane. Cannot peel away from underlying tissue
Gap junctions
Transmembrane proteins, ions, nutrients and other small solutes pass between cells
Epithelial Tissue
Forms sheets of closely adhering cells. One or more cells thick. Covers body surfaces and line body cavities. Constitutes most glands. Avascular ( no blood vessels)
Basement membrane
Layer between epithelium and underlying connective tissue. Anchors to epithelium to the connective tissue below it
Basal surface
Surface of epithelial cell facing basement membrane
Apical surface
The surface of epithelial cell away from the basement membrane
Epithelial tissue functions (memorise atleast 3)
Protect deeper tissue from injury
excrete wastes
Absorbs chemicals including nutrients
sense stimuli
Simple epithelia
One layer of cells (name according to cell shape) all cells touch basement membrane.
tratified epithelia
More than one cell layer. Names according to shape of apical cells. Soem cells rest ontop of others and do not touch basement membrane
Pseudostratified columnar epithelia
Appears stratified as some cells taller than others. Every cell reaches basement membrane but not all cells reach free surface
Goblet cells
Mucus secreting cells in simple columnar and pseudostratified epithelia.
Simple squamous epithelium
Single layer of thin cells. permits rapid diffusion or transport of substances. (Alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium.)
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Single layer of square/round cells. absorption and secretion. Mucus production and movement. (liver, thyroid, salivary glands, kidney tubules)
Simple columnar epithelium
A single row of tall narrow cells with oval nuclei in bottom half of cell. (digestive tract, uterus, kidney)
Pseudostratified epithelium
Looks multilayered, but al lcells touch basement membrane. Nuclei at several layers.
Straifited epithelia
2-20 layers of cells (1mm). cells rest directly on others. only deepest layer touches basement membrane.
Straified squamous (most widespread. skin)
Stratified cuboidal (two or more cell layers. secrete hormones/sperm/sweat)
Stratified columnar (rare)
transitional epithelium (multilayered epithelium - surface cells flat)
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Multiple cell layers, cells become flat and scaley towards the surface. Resists abrasion, retarts water loss, resists penetration
Non keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Same as keratinized epithelium without surface layer of dead cells. resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens. (tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus)
Connective tissue
Diverse, abundant type of tissue with few cells relative to matrix. Most cells not in direct contact with one another. Supports and connects organs. Have blood vessels
onnective tissue functions
Connecting organs (tendons and ligaments)
support (bone and cartilage)
physical protection ( cranium, rubs, sternum)
immune protection (white blood cells)
movement (bones provide lever system)
storage (fat, calcium, phosphorus)
heat production (metabolism of brown fat in infants)
Transport (blood)
fIBROBLASTS
Produce fibers and ground substance of matrix
Macrophages
Phagocytize foreign material and activate immune system when detecting foreign matter.
Fibrous connective tissue
Plasma cells - synthesize antibodies (protien)
Mast cells - often found alongside blood vessels. secrete herapin and histamine.
Adipocytes - store triglycerides
Collagenous fibres
Collagen in most abundant protein. 25% touch flexible and stretch resistant. (tendons and ligaments)
Reticular fibers
Thin colalgen fibers coated w/ glycoprotein. Famework for spleen and lymphnodes.
Elastic fibers
Thinner than collagenous fibers. Branch and rejoin each other. Protien called elastin
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
Long polysaccharides comrpising amino sugars and uronic acids. Regulare water and electrolyte balance of tissues
Proteoglycans
Large molecules shaped like bottle brushes. formed colloids that hold tissues together
Adhesive glycoproteins
Protein carbohydrate complexes. Bind components of tissues together
Loose connective tissue
Abundant gel like substance between cells.
Areolar
Loosley organized fibers. Mostly collagenous, elastic and reticular fibers. Found in all tissues .supply infection fighting leuckocytes.
Reticular
Mesh of reticular fibers/fibroblasts. Forms supportive framework for lymphatic organs
Dense regular connective tissue
Densely packed parallel collagen fibers. Elastic tissue forms wavy sheets in some locations. - Tendons and liagments.
Dense irregular
Densely packed, randomly arranged collagen fibers and few visible cells. Withstands unpredictable stresses - deep layer of skin, capsules around organs.
Adipose Tissue
Empty looking cells within margins and nucleus against cell membrane. Energy storage, insulation, and cushioning. Fat and organ packing.