Anatomy Midterm Flashcards
Define anatomy vs physiology.
Structure vs function of organizational level
What is homeostasis?
The body’s normal state of equilibrium/steady internal environment
Describes the organizational levels of life.
Atoms, molecules, chemicals (the atoms and molecules make up the chemical level), cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and finally the complete organism
List the organ systems (10 total) and their FUNCTION.
- Cardiovascular - transport of nutrients, gases, waste
- Digestive - metabolism + storage of carbs, lipids, proteins
- Endocrine - slower & longer communications
- Integumentary - protection + temperature regulation
- Lymphatic - fluid balance + immunity
- Nervous - rapid & shorter communications
- Musculoskeletal - support + movement
- Reproductive - survival of species
- Urinary - filtration + fluid balance
- Respiratory - provide gas exchange
List the organ systems (10 total) and their ORGANS.
- Cardiovascular - heart, blood vessels
- Digestive - mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anal canal, liver, pancreas, gallbladder
- Endocrine - hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid/parathyroid, pancreas, ovaries, testes
- Integumentary - skin, hair, nails, sweat glands
- Lymphatic - thymus, spleen, tonsils, adenoids, lymph nodes, lymph vessels
- Nervous - brain and spinal cord
- Musculoskeletal - muscles, joints, bones, tendons, ligaments
- Reproductive - ovaries, testes, breasts, uterus
- Urinary - kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
- Respiratory- trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli in the lungs
Which cavity contains the heart and lungs?
Thoracic
As the sonographer, you are asked to perform a liver study. In which cavity would you find the liver?
Abdominal
The abdominal cavity contains all of the following organs EXCEPT:
A. kidneys
B. spleen
C. urinary bladder
D. stomach
E. intestines
C. Urinary bladder
In which cavity would you find the reproductive organs?
Pelvic
In which cavity would you find the gallbladder?
Abdominal
If the patient were having difficulties with his central nervous system (brain and spine), which body cavity would need to be imaged by his diagnostic team?
Dorsal
If the patient were having difficulties with his urinary bladder, which body subcavity would need to be imaged by his diagnostic team?
A. ventral abdominal
B. dorsal vertebral
C. ventral pelvic
D. dorsal cranial
C. Ventral pelvic
Define ventral vs dorsal.
Anterior/front vs Posterior/back
What are the ventral subcavities?
Thoracic and abdominopelvic
What are the dorsal subcavities?
Cranial and vertebral/spinal
Define superior vs inferior.
Superior (also Cranial) - above, upward, toward the head
Inferior (also Caudal) - below, downward, toward the feet
Define medial vs lateral.
Medial is towards the midline of the body, lateral is towards the sides of the body away from the midline
Define proximal vs distal.
Proximal - closest to the point of origin or attachment
Distal - farthest from the point or origin or attachment
Define ipsilateral vs contralateral.
Ipsilateral - same side
Contralateral - opposite side
Define superficial vs deep.
Superficial - toward the surface
Deep - away from the surface
The skin is _____ to muscle tissue.
A. superficial
B. deep
C. medial
D. lateral
A. Superficial
The abdominal cavity is ________ to the pelvic cavity.
A. anterior
B. inferior
C. superior
D. posterior
C. Superior
The spleen and left kidney are __________ in the body.
A. anterior
B. inferior
C. contralateral
D. ipsilateral
D. Ipsilateral
Your fingers are _____ to your wrist.
Distal
If you were told that the abdominal aorta begins with a diameter of 2 cm and tapers to a diameter of 1.5 centimeters as it moves away from the heart, what would you say is the location of the area that measures 2 cm?
Proximal abdominal aorta
A vertical plane that bisects the body into right and left halves.
Medial
Any plane parallel to the median plane.
Sagittal
Any plane at right angles to both the median and coronal planes.
Transverse
Any vertical plane at right angles to the median plane.
Coronal
If you were scanning a patient’s left lumbar region, which of the following organs would you most likely be scanning?
Left kidney
Which of the following is the largest organ of the right upper quadrant?
Liver
Cutting the body into unequal right and left halves requires a cut through which body plane?
Sagittal (would be parasagittal)
If your transducer is mid-sagittal on the body with the marker pointing toward the patient’s head and you wanted to view a structure that was just to the right or left of mid-sagittal, which term best describes how you would move your transducer?
Laterally
Which system regulates hormonal activity?
Endocrine system
The responsibility of transporting blood and oxygen to all the cells of the body is that of the…
Circulatory system
Which system is responsible for processing data from all areas of the body?
Nervous system
Where does the heart lie?
Slightly left of the sternum between the right and left lung in the mediastinum
What sac overlays the entire heart?
Pericardium
How much blood does the heart pump per minute?
About 5 liters
Which arteries supply the heart with oxygenated blood?
Coronary arteries
Name the layers of the heart from outermost to innermost.
Epicardium, the myocardium (muscle layer), and the endocardium (smooth layer)
Discuss the pathway of blood within the heart.
- Deoxygenated blood returns through the superior/inferior vena cava and dumps into the R atrium
- Blood will move through the tricuspid valve into the R ventricle after the atrium contracts
- The R ventricle contracts and deoxygenated pumps through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary ARTERY to go to the lungs
- Oxygenated blood returns through the pulmonary VEINS and dumps into the L atrium
- Blood will move through the mitral valve into the L ventricle after the atrium contracts
- The L ventricle contracts and oxygenated blood pumps through the aortic valve into the aorta
- Oxygenated blood is delivered to organ tissue
Why are valves significant?
To keep blood flowing in one direction
What is an ECG/EKG?
Electrocardiogram; visualizes electrical activity of the heart
What divides the left/right side of the heart?
Septum (atrioventricular)
The heart is what type of organ?
Muscular
Which valve is located between the Left Atrium and Left Ventricle?
Mitral valve
Which valve is located between the Right Atrium and Right Ventricle?
Tricuspid valve
Where is the sinoatrial node of the heart located?
Right atrium
What is the sinoatrial node also known as?
The pacemaker of the heart
What is the difference between the systolic pressure and the diastolic pressure?
Pulse pressure
What instrument measures blood pressure?
Sphygmomanometer
State what systolic/diastolic means in blood pressure.
Highest pressure is the systolic pressure (top number) and reflects the pressure during cardiac contraction.
The lower pressure is the diastolic pressure (bottom number) and reflects the pressure during cardiac relaxation.
What is a normal BP? Hypertensive? Hypotensive? Critical?
120/80 mmHg
>140/90 = hypertension
<90/60 = hypotensive
220/110 = critical
Blood pressure is defined as…
Pressure exerted against the arterial wall by moving blood during systole and diastole
How big is the human heart?
Slightly larger than a mans fist
What does the coronary sinus do?
Drains deoxygenated blood directly from the myocardium of the heart into the right atrium
Briefly explain the aortic and carotid sinus reflexes and how they help regulate the heart rate.
Aortic sinus reflex: very quick reflex that kicks in when blood pressure is too high, which sends a signal to slow our heart rate and supply blood into systemic circulation.
Carotid sinus relfex: responsible for regulating blood pressure and is triggered by changes to the baroreceptors in the carotid sinus located in the neck. When blood pressure is too high, it will signal to slow heart rate down and lower blood pressure. When blood pressure is too low, it will signal to increase heart rate and increase blood pressure.
Name the 3 layers of a vessel. Describe how they may differ between arteries vs veins.
Innermost to outermost: Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia.
Arteries: tunica media (muscular layer) is much thicker opposed to veins since arteries must withstand the high pressure at which blood is being pumping from the heart. Arteries also have to expand and contract with the flow of blood, whereas veins are expandable/collapsible.
Veins: carry blood back towards the heart at a much lower pressure and have thin vessel walls, but contained within veins are valves to prevent back flow of blood.
As you inhale, air passes through a series of chambers and passageways before it reaches your lungs. Describe what is happening to this air while it is passing through these chambers and passageways on its way to your lungs.
Once air passes through our nostrils/mouth, air is warmed, humidified, and larger particles are filtered out with hair/mucus. The air we breathe will be further purified and humidified as it passes farther into the respiratory system. Air then travels down the pharynx (aka throat) and passes through the larynx (aka voice box) and into the trachea (windpipe), which branches into 2 tubes called the bronchi. Bronchi further divide into bronchioles, where alveoli are finally reached and gas exchange occurs.
Describe what passes through the pharynx (throat) and the role it plays in the equalization of pressure within the eardrum.
Air and food/liquid passes through the pharynx. The epiglottis is a flap of tissue located within the laryngopharynx that is responsible for covering the trachea while we swallow to avoid food/liquid particles entering the lungs. When we are not eating, the epiglottis assumes its regular upwards position. Additionally, the pharynx plays a role in equalizing air pressure to the bilateral ear drums. This is achieved through the Eustachian tubes, which drain fluids from the middle ear via the laryngopharynx. It opens when we swallow or yawn to equalize the pressure in the middle ear as well.
Describe the difference between the purpose or function of the true vocal cords and the false vocal cords.
True vocal cords make a sound when air passes through the larynx, enabling us to speak/make throat sounds, and false vocal cords will prevent any food from going the wrong way.
Describe the purpose or function of the trachea (windpipe).
The trachea provides structure, traps and sweeps dust particles towards the pharynx away from the lungs, and provides the airway passage to our lungs.
Briefly describe how the surface area of the alveoli allow for efficient gas exchange.
Alveoli exist in great numbers within the lungs, have a large surface area, and very thin membranes that allows for optimal gas exchange. Their large surface area allow more diffusion to occur at the site and increase their ability to interact with the extensive capillaries that surround their surface. This diffusion is also able to occur much quickly due to the very thin walls of the alveoli, where gases can easily permeate.
What is the main difference between arteries and veins?
Veins have valves
What is meant by systole in cardiac function?
Ventricles are CONTRACTING
What keeps the heart beating in a uniform manner?
Electrical conduction
What best describes the flow of blood through the portal venous system?
Blood flows from the spleen and intestines through the liver via portal veins then through the hepatic veins, draining into the IVC which brings blood back into the right atrium of the heart
Why does the portal venous system require blood to pass through the liver prior to entering the heart?
Filtration of toxins and storage of minerals
How does the fetus obtain oxygen and nutrients and dispose of carbon dioxide and wastes during the last trimester of pregnancy?
Through the maternal connection through the umbilical cord as the fetal lungs are not functional before birth
When taking a patient’s pulse, which of the following methods is most commonly used?
Artery in wrist
All of the following are components of the lymphatic system EXCEPT:
A. spleen
B. bone marrow
C. kidneys
D. Lymph nodes
C. Kidneys
At which vascular level is the site of the exchange of nutrients and wastes between the blood and the tissue cells?
At the level of the capillary
What are the two roles of the lymphatic system?
- Circulatory - transport excess fluid from the interstitial tissues in a one-way direction back toward the heart via muscle contraction and into the bloodstream to maintain normal blood volume.
- Immunity - contains lymph nodes which attack bacteria and foreign substances that travel through the lymph vessels. The lymph nodes appear in clusters in the neck, axillary, along the aorta, groin and popliteal areas behind the knee.
The lymphatic system is a network of vessels lying adjacent to the…
Capillaries
The lymphatic vessels transport fluid…
Back to the heart through a series of ducts and veins
The lymphatic vessels flow through several _________.
Lymph nodes
Lymph nodes contain concentrations of what type of cells that are responsible for destroying invading bacteria?
White blood cells
Where is the thymus located?
Center of the chest just behind the sternum
What is the function of the thymus?
Where some WBCs mature to produce T-cells, which governs cellular immunity + helps cells recognize and destroy invading pathogens, abnormal cell growth (cancer and foreign tissue)
Where are the tonsils located?
Oropharynx/nasopharynx
The tonsils consist of what type of tissue?
Lymphoepithelial tissue
What are tonsils believed to serve as first line of defense against?
Inhaled pathogens
What are allergies?
Overreaction of the body’s natural defense system that helps fight infection
Allergy is defined as a hypersensitivity disorder of the…
Immune system
If a person is hypersensitive to an allergen, the body activates certain white blood cells called Mast cells which results in an ____________________.
Inflammatory response
What effect will an anti-histamine have in response to an allergic reaction?
Blocks the ability of the body to release histamines which cause swelling and mucous production
In which component of the lymphatic system are T cells matured and trained to recognize foreign antigens and to ignore the body’s own antigens?
Thymus
All of the following are functions of the lymphatic nodes EXCEPT:
A.protect against invading organisms
B. filter lymph fluid
C. transport waste through lymphatic ducts
D. destroy worn out RBC’s and salvage hemoglobin
D. Destroy worn out RBC’s and salvage hemoglobin
What has the largest concentration of lymphoid tissue in the body?
Spleen
What occurs when lymph fluid drainage is impaired?
Edema
When the body recognizes a returning organism and is ready for it, it is termed:
Memory
The kidneys are located in the…
Retroperitoneal cavity
The sphincter muscles are circular muscles that play an important role in…
Urine continence
The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units. Each unit is called a…
Nephron
Where are the nephrons located?
Cortex of the kidney
What is the responsibility of a nephron?
- Gets rid of wastes from the body
- Controls blood volume and pressure
- Regulates levels of electrolytes and metabolites
- Regulates blood pH
What solutes does the nephron control?
The quantity of water, salts, glucose, urea and other minerals in your body.
What are the stages of urine formation?
Secretion, filtration, and reabsorbtion
All of the following are means of regulating glomerular filtration EXCEPT:
A. renal autoregulation
B. hormonal regulation
C. neuronal regulation
D. muscular regulation
D. Muscular regulation
From the distal convoluted tubule, filtrate will then be carried to the…
Collecting duct
A funnel shaped reservoir that collects urine from all parts of the kidney is the…
Renal pelvis
A gland on the superior medial surface of each kidney that is part of the endocrine system is called the…
Adrenal glands
Your are scanning the kidneys of your patient and your radiologist asks you to compare the sonographic appearance of the cortex of the kidney to the renal sinus of the kidney. Your patient’s kidneys appear normal. Which of the following best describes what you might say to the radiologist?
The cortex of the kidney is hypoechoic to the renal sinus of the kidney.
Your patient presents with blood in the urine. The mentor ask you to describe the sonographic appearance of the medulla of the kidney and compare it to the sonographic appearance of the renal capsule of the kidney. Which of the following answer would best describe what you might say to the mentor?
The renal capsule is hyperechoic to the renal medulla.
You are asked by the physician to explain how the renal cortex and the renal medulla compare sonographically. Which of the following comparisons would be the most accurate for a normal kidney?
The renal cortex is hyperechoic to the renal medulla.
The renal sinus, in a normal ultrasound exam, is considered to be:
Echogenic
The process of breaking down food into substances the body uses for metabolism is called…
Digestion
All of the following are structures of the alimentary canal EXCEPT:
A. esophagus
B. stomach
C. small intestine
D. pancreas
D. Pancreas
The term used to describe how food and waste materials move is called…
Peristalsis
Rugae, the unique muscle folds of the stomach break up the food into small pieces that is called…
Chyme
The two components of each villi include…
A capillary and a lacteal
The major portion of absorption and digestion occurs in the…
Small intestine
The function of the colon includes all of the following EXCEPT
A. absorbs water
B. manufactures blood cells
C. produces mucous
D. forms and expels feces
B. Manufactures blood cells
Describe the pathway of food through the gastrointestinal tract.
- When food is taken into the mouth, the teeth break it into smaller pieces as it mixes with saliva.
- As the food is swallowed, the pharynx opens to block food from going into the trachea and obstructing the airway.
- Peristalsis move food through the esophagus past esophageal sphincter into the stomach where rugae allow expansion and contraction.
- Between the rugae are glands that secrete acid and mucus that breakdown solid food into a liquid called chyme.
- In the small intestine, villi absorb nutrients and minerals from the chyme and receive enzymes from bile and pancreas.
- The large intestine transports the unabsorbed material to the sigmoid colon, stored temporarily in the rectum, then through the anus to be expelled.
What are the 2 functions of the pancreas?
Exocrine (digestive) an endocrine (hormonal)
What enzymes does the pancreas produce? Which cells secrete them?
Amylase, Trypsin/carboxypeptidase, Lipase; secrete by acinar cells
What does pancreatic juice travel through?
Main pancreatic duct aka duct of Wirsung
What two ducts meet at the ampulla of Vater?
Common bile and main pancreatic
What is the sphincter of Oddi?
Small muscle around ampulla of Vater that relaxes to allow the pancreatic juice and bile to flow into the duodenum
Which pancreatic enzyme digests carbohydrates?
Amylase
Which pancreatic enzyme digests fats?
Lipase
All of the following are functions of the pancreas EXCEPT:
A. produces hormones
B. maintains sugar and salt balance
C. produces pancreatic enzymes
D. produces bile
D. Produces bile
The location of the pancreas is…
Behind the abdominal cavity beneath the stomach
Which of the following is responsible for 90% of the pancreatic function?
Exocrine
What is the primary center for metabolism in the body?
Liver
What is the main component of bile?
Cholesterol
What are the functions of the liver?
Uptake and storage of nutrients such as carbohydrates, amino acids or proteins, fats, and vitamins.
Performs metabolic conversions of above substances into nutrients and subsequently releases them into the blood and bile vessels or ducts.
Secretes bile.
Drug inactivation.
Waste removal.
Blood storage.
Detoxification.
Where is portal venous blood returning from?
Small intestines (SMV), large intestines (IMV), spleen, pancreas (splenic vein)
The sac that stores the bile produced from the liver is called the…
Gallbladder
What supplies blood to the liver?
Hepatic artery (20%) and main portal vein (80%)
Which of the following is NOT a building block of the liver?
A. proteins
B. fats
C. bile
D. carbohydrates
C. Bile
In order for bile to get to the intestines to aid in digestion, the liver cells are connected to small tubes called…
Bile ducts
Which organ plays an accessory role by storing and releasing bile into the small intestine when fatty chyme is detected?
Gallbladder
The stomach is a hollow organ that contains folds that allow for expansion and contraction. These folds are called…
Rugae
When ingested solids are broken down into a liquid in the stomach, that liquid is called…
Chyme
Which of the following transports unabsorbed material to the sigmoid colon and then to the anus to be expelled?
Large intestine
Finger-like projections in the small intestines that function to absorb substances such as nutrients and minerals from chyme are called…
Villi
This organ lies posterior to the stomach with its head adjacent to the duodenum and aids in digestion.
Pancreas
With decreased peristalsis in the intestine, more time is available for reabsorption of fluid, which leads to…
Constipation
What are feedback loops?
A biological mechanism to enhance or buffer changes that occur within a system to maintain homeostasis
Define what a positive feedback loop is.
They enhance/amplify changes, moving a system away from equilibrium/making it more unstable
Define what a negative feedback loop is.
They dampen/buffer changes, bringing a system closer to its equilibrium state/making it more stable
____________is a process by which organisms keep internal conditions relatively constant despite changes in the external environment.
Negative feedback loop homeostasis
A mechanism that rarely or never controls the release of hormones from glands is a…
Positive feedback mechanism
Feed back loops are essential to …
Homeostasis
The production of a given signal will eventually lead to a decrease in that signal.
Negative feedback loop
The production of a given signal will eventually lead to an increase in that signal.
Positive feedback loop
After eating a meal, blood glucose level is ______ and _____ cells simulate the pancreas to secrete _________.
Increased; beta; insulin
Which organs is blood regulated by?
Pancreas and liver
How do the increase in insulin levels decrease blood sugar?
The liver takes up excess glucose, converts it to glycogen, and stores it until needed.
What happens when blood sugar levels are too high?
Alpha cells in the pancreas stimulate the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose. Once alpha cells detect the glucose levels are back to normal, they will shut the process down in the pancreas.
Which of the following converts glucose into glycogen and stores it until needed?
Liver
Which of the following organs secrete insulin?
Pancreas
Which of the following are the two divisions of the nervous system?
Central and peripheral
The spinal cord and brain are parts of the…
Central nervous system
The main job of the central nervous system is to …
Get information from the body and send out instructions
The neuron contains a dendrite that…
Receives stimuli
The neuron contains an axon that…
Send nerve impulses
The thought process and nerve impulses that lead to a movement is considered which of the following?
Voluntary
What is the role of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland?
Hypothalamus aka “master gland”: directs the pituitary gland to secrete or inhibit production of hormones.
Pituitary gland: Produces hormones that stimulate the other endocrine glands to produce their own hormones to help maintain the body’s chemical equilibrium and homeostasis
Describe the function of the thyroid + parathyroid and their roles in calcium regulation.
The thyroid secretes iodine based hormones that regulate physical growth, development, oxidation, heart rate, blood pressure, temperature, glucose absorption, and the utilization of glucose.
The thyroid will release calcitonin when serum calcium levels are too high. The parathyroid release parathyroid hormone (PTH) to increase calcium levels when blood calcium is too low.
How do the adrenal glands respond in times of stress?
The adrenals produce hormones that respond to stress by releasing adrenaline/epinephrine and cortisol, triggering our fight-or-flight response in times of stress. In return, our heart rate increases along with our blood pressure and blood sugar levels to provide disposable energy.
What hormone do the adrenal glands release to have an effect on the kidneys?
These glands release aldosterone to regulate salt-water levels and metabolism
What is the forebrain?
Located in front of the cerebrum and is the site of the most complex functions of human actions and thought.
Functions include memory, judgment, reasoning, speech, formation of words, emotions, personality traits, and receives and sends messages to the other parts of the brain that control less complex functions.
What is the midbrain?
Connects the forebrain to the hindbrain, consists of cerebellum and pons, and is located behind and below the cerebrum.
Controls vision and eye reflexes, many visceral or involuntary muscle activities, and motor responses of the head and torso.
What is the hindbrain?
Consists of cerebellum and pons.
Responsible for coordinating stimuli on their way to the muscles.
What is the pons?
Pathway between the two halves of the cerebellum and a relay between the midbrain and the medulla.
Plays a role in breathing.
What is the medulla oblongata?
Elongation of the base of the brain that joins with the spinal cord.
Controls the activity of internal organs, including respiratory and digestive organs, the heart, and glands.
