Anatomy-Midterm Flashcards
Gross anatomy
Studying the internal organs
Surface anatomy
Studying the surface
Developmental anatomy (embryology)
Studying prenatal development. Also studying congenital anomalies
Microscopic anatomy
Studying structures at the microscopic level. Two types:
1) Histology: studying tissue
2) Cytology: studying cells
Radiological anatomy
Studying structures with the help of x-rays, CT scans, MRI, and other medical imaging techniques
Surgical anatomy
Helps surgeons in making correct incisions
Supine position
Laying on your back, facing up
Prone position
Laying on your stomach, facing down
Lithotomy poistion
Birth position or disability
Median plane (median saggital plane)
Cuts through the middle of the body and divides it into left and right halves
Saggital planes
Planes parallel to the median plane
Horizontal (axial or transverse) plane
Planes going horizontally
Coronal plane
Perpendicular to the median plane and divides the body into anterior and posterior
Oblique planes
Irregular planes
Superior (cranial)
Closer to the head
Inferior (caudal)
Closer to the feet
Anterior (ventral)
Closer to the front
Posterior (dorsal)
Closer to the back
Medial
Closer to the median plane
Lateral
Farther from the median plane
Proximal
Closer to the trunk/point of origin
Distal
Farther from the trunk/point of origin
Exterior
Outside
Interior
Inside
Superficial
Nearer to the surface
Deep
Farther from the surface
Central
Closer to the center (for spherical structures)
Peripheral
Farther from the center (for spherical structures)
Ipsilateral
Same side
Contralateral
Different sides
Parietal
Outside covering of a body covering
Visceral
Inside covering of a body cavity
Evagination
Outward bulging of a body of a wall
Invagination
Inward bulging of a body of a wall
Flexion
Bending to decrease the angle
Extension
Extending to increase the angle
Abduction
Moving away from the median plane
Adduction
Moving towards the median plane
Rotation
Rotating across the longitudinal axis
Medial rotation
Rotating inwards
Lateral rotation
Rotating outward
Circumduction
Circular movement combining abduction, adduction, flexion, and extension
Eversion
Raising the lateral border of the foot
Inversion
Rotating the medial part of the foot
Pronation
Rotating your forearm so that your plan is facing down
Supination
Rotating your forearm so that your palm is facing up
Protrusion
Moving anteriorly
Retraction
Moving posteriorly
Origin
End of a muscle that is fixed and shows less movement
Insertion
End of a muscle that is fixed and shows more movement
Belly
Fleshy, contractile portion
Tendon
Fibrous, non-contractile part of muscle
Aponeurosis
Connective tissue that connects bone to skin/muscle
Raphe
Fibrous brand mad of aponeurosis
Arteries
Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
Vessels
Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart
Arterioles
Small arteries that branch out
Venules
Small veins that branch out
Capillaries
Connect arterioles and venules
Primordial germ cells
Primitive gametes; derived from the epiblast in the second week of development and move into the wall of the yolk sac
Spermatogonium/oogonium
Mitotically active cells
Primary spermatocyte/oocyte
Prepares to go take meiosis
Secondary spermatocyte/oocyte
Completed meiosis I and goes into meiosis II
Spermatid/egg
Completes meiosis II
Sertoli cells
Large pale cells surrounding the sperm. Derived from the epithelium of the gland. Acts under FSH and like female granulosa cells
Leydig cells
Outside the seminiferous tubules. Produces testosterone to help in sperm post-development. Acts under LH. Like female thecal cells
Myoid cells
Outside the seminiferous tubules. Helps in pushing the sperm out
Acrosomes
Vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes
Middle piece
Contains mitochondria to help the sperm move
Neck
Contains centrioles forming microtubules
Principal piece
Longest piece of the tail
End piece
Terminal end of the term
Aneuploidy
Any derivation from 46 chromosomes
Aneuploidy of genome
Attaining a set of 23 chromosome (triploidy, tetraploidy)
Aneuploidy of a chromosome
Gaining one or losing one chromosome. Two types:
1) Hypodiploid: 45 chromosomes
2) Hyperdiploid: 47 chromosomes
Cri-du-chat syndrome
Loss of 5p arm
Turner syndrome
XO in females. Females are infertile, have a short neck, and height
Trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome)
Gain extra chromosome 21. Leads to mental retardation, flat face, short neck
Klinefelter syndrome
XXY or XXXY in males. They are infertile, have testicular atrophy, and have breasts
Follicular cells
Become granulosa cells and surround the ovum
Stromal cells
Become thecal cells
Primordial follicle
Ovum surrounded by follicular cells and outside of the ovum, there are stromal cells
Early primary follicle
Follicular cells become cuboidal but are still unilaminar. Zone pellucida begins to appear
Late primary follicle
Follicular cells become multilaminar. Zona pellucida forms. Stromal cells differentiate into theca interna and theca externa
Secondary/antral follicle
Ovum gets bigger due to division of granulosa cells. Cavities begin to appear called antrum. Corona radiate and cumulus oopholus begin to form
Graafian follicle
Mature follicle that has everything
Corpus leuteum
When ovulation occurs (ovum and granulosa cells leave ovary), some granulosa cells and theca interns form a yellow structure which secretes progesterone under the influence of LH to prepare the endometrium for implantation
Corpus albicans
If fertilization doesn’t occur, corpus leuteum degrades to become corpus albicans
For fertilization, need intercourse…
1) 3 days before ovulation
2) 24 hours after ovulation
Sperm viability in female tract
24-72 hours
Egg viability
12-24 hours
Capacitation
Sperm maturation in the Fallopian tubes. Interactions between the epithelial of the Fallopian tube and sperm. Removes proteins and seminal plasma proteins acquired through epididymal and ejaculatory phases. This is to expose molecules that will help in egg penetration
Beta proteins
Find and bind to receptors on the egg membrane
Alpha proteins
Tells beta proteins to go
Fast stop to polyspermy
When the sperm and egg membranes fuse, causes depolarization of the membrane which stops any other sperm from binding to egg receptors. Also, sodium ions enter the cell
Slow stop to polyspermy
When the membranes fuse, calcium ions leave the egg,s cytoplasm, causing cortical granules to fuse with the eggs membrane and empty contents that destroy the eggs sperm receptors
Acrosomal process
Actin filaments elongate to start making their way to the eggs receptors
Acrosomal reaction
Occurs after the hydrolytic enzymes penetrate the zona pellucida
Pronuclei
When egg and sperm nuclei are swollen and come closer to each other
Blastomeres
First cleavage (2 cells)
Morula
16 cell stage (72 hours old)
Blastocyst
Hollow filled with embryoblast and trophoblast
Trophoblast
Makes the placenta and chorion. Differentiates into:
1) Syncytiotrophoblast: membranes are fused together; outer layer
2) Cytotrophoblast: inner layer; membranes aren’t fused together
Placenta
Comes in the third month and starts secreting estrogen and progesterone
hCG
Secreted by the trophoblasts to tell the corpus leuteum to continue secreting estrogen and progesterone
Most common ectopic pregnancy…
In fallopian tubes
Epithileoid tissue
Has no apical surface. Found in the interstitial fluid of Leydig cells and leutin cells of the ovary
Endothelial
Lines the blood vessels and the lymphatic vessels
Endocardium
Lines the ventricles and the atrium
Myothelium
Lines the walls and covers the outer surfaces of the closed body cavities (pericardial, peritoneum, pleural)
Simple squamous cells
Height is less than the width. Nucleus is flat.
Found in the alveoli of the lungs, loop of Henle, Bowman’s capsule, endothelium, and myothelium
Simple cuboidal cells
Height and width are the same. Nucleus is located in the middle.
Found in the surface of the ovary, thyroid follicles, and ducts of glands
Simple columnar cells
Height is greater than the width. Nucleus is elongated and closer to the bottom. Cells are either pyramidal or low columnar.
Found in the bronchules, uterine tubes, and ductules of the testes
Non-ciliated columnar cells
Found in the GI tract (from the stomach to the rectum) and gallbladder
Pseudo-stratified non-ciliated cells
Found in the auditory tube, vas deferens, and male urethra
Pseudo-stratified ciliated cells
Found in the upper respiratory tract (trachea and large bronchi)
Stratified squamous non-keratinized
Basal layer is low cuboidal or columnar. Superficial layer is squamous.
Found in the lining of the mouth, esophagus, vagina, cornea, anal canal
Stratified squamous keratinized
Superficial layer has non-living cells that have keratin in their cytoplasm. Tough and water resistant.
Found in the skin
Stratified cuboidal cells
Found in the ducts of the sweat glands
Stratified columnar cells
Basal layer has polyhedral cells. Superficial layer has columnar cells.
Found in the ducts of large glands and the conjunctiva of the eye
Transitional epithelium (urothelium)
Basal layer are cuboidal or columnar. Middle layer is polyhedral or pear-shaped. Superficial layer is umbrella-shaped.
Found in the renal pelvis, ureter, and urinary bladder
Specialization of the lateral surface
- Zona occludens
- Zona addherins
- Macula occludens
- Gap junctions
Basal lamina
Composed of type IV collagen, proteoglycan (heparin sulfate), laminin (glycoprotein that binds to basal lamina), and entacidin (glycoprotein associated with laminin).
Has two parts: lamina lucida and lamina densa
Reticular lamina
Composed of collagen type III fibers and is below the basal lamina
Hemidesmosomes
Located on the inner surface of the basal lamina in cells that are exposed to stress (stratifies squamous)
Metaplasia
One mature epithelium changes into another epithelial cell due to an abnormal stimuli or inflammation
In smokers…
Pseudostratified changed to stratified squamous
Uterine infections…
Simple columnar changes to stratified squamous
GERD…
Stratified squamous changes to simple columnar
Exocrine glands
Have a duct that carries secretion to the outside surface or lumen if the viscera
Endocrine glands
Don’t have a duct and secretions are carried through the circulatory system
Simple(unbranched glands)
Ducts don’t branch but secretory portion can.
Three types: tubular, alveolar, and tuboalveolar
Compound (branched)
Ducts branch
Merocrine
Molecules are secreted by exocytosis
Examples: pancreatic acinar cells, salivary glands
Apocrine
Apical surface of the cell is lost and cytoplasm disintegrates to release molecule
Example: mammary gland, ciliary body of the eyelid
Holocrine
Whole cell is secreted and disintegrated to release molecules
Examples: tarsal (mboidium) region of eyelid, sebaceous gland of hair follicles
Serous cells
Apex is lumen. Nucleus is round/oval. Lots of ER, golgi, and secretory granules. Is eosophilic due to immature and mature secretory granules
Mucous cells
Basal nucleus that is flat. Basal surface includes ER, Golgi, and nucleus. Apical surface has secretory granules. Has a greater lumen than serous cells. Does not take in the H&E stain due to mucous cytoplasm
Rough ER and golgi have enzymes called glycosyltransferases that add sugar to polypeptide.
Examples: sublingual salivary glands, glands of respiratory , genital tract
Mixed glands
Has both serine and mucous components. Serous cells at the end form crescent cells called serous demunles
Goblet cells
Unicellular glands that have a basal nucleus with an ER surrounding it. Golgi is above it and secretory granules are on top containing mucin. Mucin will hydrate to become mucus that will line the lumen
Example: small intestine, large intestine, and respiratory epithelium
Myoepithelial cells
Found between the basal lamina and the epithelium cells. Star-shaped and processes tough acinal portion. Helps in contracting the secretions into the duct. Have myosin and actin
Absorption
Concentrating bike and absorbing water and ions. Goes from lumen to the cell. Microvilli help absorb nutrients.
Example: intestine and gallbladder
Secretion
Lose water from interstitial fluid. Goes from cell to lumen
Example: choroid plexus, salivary gland, ciliary body
Microvilli
Finger-like projections of cytoplasm that help in absorption and contraction. Contains myosin I, myosin II and actin filaments
Example: intestine and kidney
Villin
Located at the tip of the microvilli and anchors the actin filaments
Terminal web
Horizontal layer of actin filaments that are located under the base of the microvilli. Stabilized by spectrin
Spectrin
Anchors the terminal web to the apical membrane of the cell in microvilli
Cilia
Hair-like projections of the cytoplasm
Basal body of cillia…
Contains 9 triplets of microtubules
Is thin and dark-staining
Inner core of cilia
Contains 9 doublets of microtubules surrounding a pair of microtubules in the center.
Microtubules have A and B subunits
Have arms that extend from the A subunit and form cross-bridges with the B subunit
Dyenin
Protein that is in the arms of microtubules
Nexin
Links microtubules together
Stereocillia
Long microvilli that have thick and thin regions. The thick regions have cytoplasmic bridges in between them. There’s is no villin
Example: male reproductive tract (vas deferens and ductule deferens) and hair receptors of the ear
Erzin
Plasma protein that attaches actin bundles to apical region of the cytoplasm in sterocillia
Flagellum
Long cillia that is found only in the male sperm cell
Tight junction (zonula occludens)
Fusion of some plasma proteins of adjacent cells on their lateral side. Leads to things passing between apical and lateral regions
Belt desmosomes (zonula adherens)
Connect actin filaments from one cell to the other cell
Desmosomes (maculae occludens)
Main junction for cells to bind to each other. Scattered across the cell membrane.
Circular plaque
On the membranes of each cell
Cadherins
Link the adjacent plaques. Can zip up the space
Intermediate filaments
Can bind to the plaques and helps relieve the tension on either side
Gap junctions (nexus)
Form channels between adjacent cells.
Connexons
Protein that helps form the channels to help ions and other small substances cross the membrane
Lamina lucidin
Contains laminin
Lamina densa
Contains type IV collagen and heparin sulfate
Attaching proteins
Help connect the basal lamina to the lamina retucularis. Contains type VII collagen
Lamina reticularis
Contains type III collagen
Type IV collagen
Form a meshwork of procollagen that helps in structure and filtration of the basal lamina
Type VII collagen
Attaches the lamina reticularis to the basal lamina
Hematoxylin and eosin
Simple staining technique
Hematoxylin: basic stain (positive charge) that stains blue
Eosin: acidic stain (negative charge) that stains pink
Silver staining
Uses silver and stains proteins (type III collagen) and DNA
Toulidine blue
Has a property called metachromasia which is staining tissues in different shades of a color
Stains blue in solution but red in mast cell granules
Giemsa/ Wright stain
Stains for blood and bone marrow. Smears are a mixture of basic (methylene blue) and acidic (eosin)
Osmium tetroxide
Stain lipids
Sudan III & IV
Used instead of oil red o since it gives a darker red color
Amniotic cavity
Forms in the second week. Trophoblast and embryoblast separate and form a cavity in between. Roof is amnion and floor is epiblast. Amniotic fluid is deceived from maternal blood and fetal urine
Developing sinusoids
9th day: holes form in the syncytiotrophoblast called lacunae
12th day: holes fuse to form a membrane called the lacunae network.
Maternal capillaries in the endometrium dilate and seep into the network
Yolk sac
Happen at 8th day if development. Hypoblast cells migrate ventrally (downward) and form extraceolomic membrane
Yolk sac is hypoblast + extracoelomic membrane
Yolk sac supplies early nutrients, contain n primordial germ cells, source of blood cells, shock absorber
Extraceolomic cavity
12th day of development. Fuses to form a large singular cavity
Chorion
Formed by two trophoblasts and extra embryonic mesoderm. Protects the embryo and produces hCG. Connecting stalk connects embryoblast to trophoblast
Gastrulation
Forming three layers of cells. Epiblast will migrate medially to the primitive streak and go ventrally (inwards) to displace the hypoblast to form endoderm. Will then go in between endodermis and epiblast to form mesoderm and finally replace itself to form ectoderm. Process goes causally to cranially
Ectoderm
Forms epidermis and nervous system
Endoderm
Epithelial lining of GI tract, resp tract, etc
Mesoderm
Everything else (bones, body cavities, CT)
Notochord
Forms on 16th day. Induces tissues to become vertebral bodies and induces neurulation
Oophoryngeal membrane
Forms at the cranial end of the disc. Will dissolve to form the tract connecting the mouth to the GI tract and pharynx
Cloacal membrane
Forms at the caudal end if the disc. Will form the opening of the anus, the urinary tract, and reproductive tracts
Allantois
When cloacal membrane forms, the wall of the yolk sac will form the allantois. In most animals, the allantois is responsible for gas exchange and waste removal. But placenta does this in humans