Anatomy Midterm 1 Flashcards
0
Q
Cellular level
A
Cells and their surroundings are made up of molecules. For example, a phospholipid molecule is a structural component of the plasma membrane
Phospholipid molecule –> phospholipid membrane –> forms most of the plasma membrane of a cell
1
Q
Chemical level
A
Atoms combine to form molecules. Molecules combine to form the macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids)
Atoms –> molecule –> hemoglobin, a protein
2
Q
Tissue level
A
Tissues consist of similar types of cells and associated extra cellular material. Epithelial tissue forms the inner lining of blood vessels
3
Q
Organ level
A
An organ is a discrete structure made up of multiple tissue types. Examples include blood vessels, the liver brain, and femur
4
Q
Organ system level
A
An organ system is a unified group of organs and tissues that perform a specific function. The example shown here is the cardiovascular system, showing blood vessels, blood, and the heart
5
Q
Organismal level
A
The whole person is the most complex level of organization, the Organismal level, resulting from the simpler levels working interdependently
6
Q
Structural levels of complexity in order (6)
A
Chemical level Cellular level Tissue level Organ level Organ system level Organismal level
7
Q
Describe body in anatomical position
A
Palms facing out, standing up straight and facing forward
8
Q
Regional terms of the body in anatomical position
A
Cephalic (head) Cervical (neck) Thoracic (chest) Upper limb (arms and wrists) Abdominal Pelvic (groin) Manus (hand) Pubic (genital) Lower limb (hip, thigh, leg) Pedal (foot, ankle) Dorsum (back)
9
Q
Superior (cranial)
A
Towards the head and or upper part of a structure of the body, above
The head is superior to the abdomen
10
Q
Inferior (caudal)
A
Away from the head and or toward the lower part of a structure of the body, below
The intestines are inferior to the liver
11
Q
Medial
A
Toward or at the midline of the body, on the inner side of
The heart is medial to the lungs
12
Q
Lateral
A
Away from the midline of the body, on the outer side of
The thumb is lateral to the pinky
13
Q
Proximal
A
Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
The elbow is proximal to the wrist
14
Q
Distal
A
Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
The knee is distal to the thigh
15
Q
Ipsilateral
A
On the same side
The right hand and the right foot are ipsilateral
16
Q
Contralateral
A
On opposite sides
The right hand and left foot are contralateral
17
Q
Anterior (ventral)
A
Toward or at the front of the body, in front of
The sternum is anterior to the heart
18
Q
Posterior (dorsal)
A
Toward or at the back of the body, behind
The vertebra is posterior to the heart
19
Q
Superficial (external)
A
Toward or at the body surface
The skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles
20
Q
Deep (internal)
A
Away from the body surface, more internal
The lungs are deep to the skin
21
Q
Frontal plane
A
Front view
Can see left and right lungs, liver, heart, stomach, arm
22
Q
Median (midsagittal) plane
A
Side view
Can see rectum, vertebral column, intestines
23
Q
Transverse plane
A
Cut body in half, top view
Can see liver, subcutaneous fat layer, spinal cord, aorta, body wall, pancreas, spleen
24
Cranial cavity
Skull
25
Vertebral cavity
Neck, spine
26
Thoracic cavity
Contains heart and lungs
27
Abdominal cavity
Contains digestive viscera
28
Pelvic cavity
Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
29
Abdomino-pelvic cavity
Abdomen
30
Ventral body cavity
Thoracic and abdominopevlic cavities
31
All body cavities
```
Cranial cavity
Vertebral cavity
Thoracic cavity
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity
Ventral body cavity
```
32
Body cavities and membranes
```
Visceral peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity (with serous fluid)
Stomach
Kidney (retroperioneal)
Wall of body trunk
Parietal peritoneum
Liver
```
33
What is the intersection point for the horizontal and vertical lines that divide the abdomen into 4 quadrants?
Navel
34
Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
Liver, gallbladder
35
Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
Diaphragm, spleen, stomach, transverse colon of large intestine
36
Right lower quadrant (RLQ)
Ascending colon of large intestine, small intestine, cecum, appendix
37
Left lower quadrant (LLQ)
Descending colon of large intestine, initial part of sigmoid colon, urinary bladder
38
The production of a protein
1. Protein containing vesicles pinch off rough ER and migrate to fuse with membranes of Golgi apparatus
2. Proteins are modified within the Golgi compartments
3. Proteins are then packaged within different vesicles types, depending on their ultimate destination
39
3 main components of cells
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
41
Mitochondria
The site of oxidative phosphorylation and the aerobic production of ATP
Have their own circular ring shaped DNA that is separate from your nuclear DNA
Generate most of the cell's energy, most complex organelle
More abundant in energy -requiring cells, like muscle cells and sperm
42
Simple diffusion
Fat-soluble molecules directly through the phospholipid bilayer down their concentration gradient
43
Osmosis
Diffusion of water through the lipid bilayer
44
Facilitated Diffusion
An integral protein that spans the plasma membrane enables the passage of a particular solute across the membrane
45
Active Transport
Some transport proteins use ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the plasma membrane against their concentration gradient
46
Exocytosis
A mechanism that moves substances out of the cell
Substance is enclosed in a vesicle
The vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane
Proteins from the vesicles (v-SNAREs) bind with membrane proteins (t-SNAREs)
The lipid layers from both membranes bind, and the vesicle releases its contents to the outside of the cell
47
Phagocytosis
The cell engulfs a large particle by forming projecting pseudopods ("false feet") around it and enclosing it with a membrane sac called a phagosome. The phagosome then combines with a lysosome, and its contents are digested. Vesicle may or may not be protein-coated but has receptors capable of binding to microorganisms or solid particles
48
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
Extracellular substances bind to specific receptor proteins in regions of protein-coated pits, enabling the cell to ingest and concentrate specific substances in protein-coated vesicles. The ingested substance may simply be released inside the cell, or combined with a lysosome to digest contents, Receptors are recycled to the plasma membrane in vesicles
49
Pinocytosis
The cell "gulps" drops of extracellular fluid containing solutes into tiny vesicles. No receptors are used, so the process is nonspecific. Most vesicles are protein-coated
50
Ribosomes
Dense particles consisting of two subunits, each composed of ribosomal RNA and protein; free or attached to rough ER
Function: the sites of protein synthesis
51
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Membrane system of sacs and tubules externally studded with ribosomes
Function: makes proteins that are secreted from the cell; makes the cell's membranes
52
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Membranous system of sacs and tubules; free of ribosomes
| Function: site of lipid and steroid hormone synthesis, lipid metabolism, and drug detoxification
53
Golgi apparatus
A stack of smooth membrane sacs close to the nucleus
Function: packages, modifies, and segregates proteins for secretion from the cell, inclusion in lysosomes, and incorporation into the plasma membrane
54
Lysosomes
Membranous sacs containing acid hydrolyses
| Function: sites of intracellular digestion
55
Mitochondria
Rodlike, double-membrane structures; inner membrane folded into projections called cristae
Function: site of ATP synthesis; powerhouse of the cell
56
Peroxisomes
Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
Function: the enzymes detoxify a number off toxic substances; the most important enzyme, catalase, breaks down hydrogen peroxide
57
Fluid Mosaic Model
Depicts the plasma membrane as a double layer, or bilayer, of lipid molecules with protein molecules embedded within it
58
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
This process of controlled cellular suicide eliminates cells that are stressed, unneeded, excessive, or aged
Controlled cell death
59
Necrosis
Death of a cell or group of cells due to injury or disease
Acute injury causes the cells to swell and burst, and they induce an inflammatory response
Uncontrolled cell death
60
Hyperplasia
Excessive cell proliferation
Unlike cancer cells, hyper plastic cells retain their normal form and arrangement within tissues
Cells increase in number but not in size
61
Hypertrophy
Growth of an organ or tissue due to an increase in the size of its cells
A normal response of skeletal muscle cells to exercise
62
Cell Differentiation
When cells begin to specialize early in embryonic development
Some cells connect body parts or cover and line organs, some produce movement and move body parts, some store nutrients, some fight disease, some gather information and control body functions, and some reproduce
63
Tube-within-a-tube Body Plan
The inner tube extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the respiratory and digestive organs
The outer tube consists of the axial skeleton and associated axial muscles that make up the outer body wall, and nervous structures
64
Neurulation
As the notochord develops, it signals the overlying ectoderm to start forming the spinal cord and brain
65
3 Germ Layers in Embryological Development
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ectoderm
66
Ectoderm
Epidermis, hair, nails, glands of skin
Brain and spinal cord
Neural crest and derivatives (sensory nerve cells and other nervous system structures, pigment cells, bones and blood vessels of the head)
Formed from epiblast cells that stay on dorsal surface
67
Endoderm
Epithelial lining and glands of digestive and respiratory tracts
Formed from migrating cells that replace the hypoblast
68
Mesoderm
Notochord: nucleus pulpous of intervertebral discs
Somite: vertebrae and ribs, dermis of dorsal body region, trunk and limb musculature
Intermediate mesoderm: kidneys, gonads
Lateral plate mesoderm --> Somatic mesoderm: parietal serosa, dermis of ventral body region, connective tissues of limbs (bones, joints, and ligaments), Spanchnic mesoderm: wall of digestive and respiratory tracts (except epithelial lining), visceral serosa, heart, blood vessels
Formed between epiblast and endoderm
69
Identify 1 adult tissue derivative from each germ layer
Ectoderm: brain, spinal cord, epidermis of skin
Endoderm: respiratory tubes, digestive organs, urinary bladder
Mesoderm: kidneys, gonads, heart, blood vessels
70
Basic functions of the epithelial surfaces that separate the internal you from the external environment
Protect, sensory reception, diffusion, secretion, absorption, ion transport, filtration and lubrication
71
3 basic shapes of epithelial cells
Squamous, cuboidal and columnar
72
Squamous
One layer: diffusion and filtration
| More than one layer: protection
73
Cuboidal Columnar
One layer: secretion and absorption; ciliated types propel mucus or reproductive cells
More than one layer: protection; these tissue types are rare in humans
74
Transitional
More than one layer: protection; stretching to accommodate dissension of urinary structures
75
What are epithelial layers distinguished as
Simple and stratified
76
Simple squamous epithelium
Description: single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped central nuclei and sparse cytoplasm; the simplest of the epithelia
Function: allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important; produces lubricating fluid in serosae
Location: kidney glomeruli; air sacs of lungs; lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels; lining of ventral body cavity (serosae)
77
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Description: single layer of cube like cells with large, spherical central nuclei
Function: secretion and absorption
Location: kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of small glands; ovary surface
78
Simple columnar epithelium
Description: single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia; layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells)
Function: absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action
Location: nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus
79
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Description: single layer of cells of differing heights, some not reaching the free surface; nuclei seen at different levels; may contain mucus-secreting goblet cells and bear cilia
Function: secretion, particularly of mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action
Location: nonciliated type in male's sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract
80
Stratified squamous epithelium
Description: thick membrane composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cubical or columnar and metabolically active; surface cells are flattened (squamous); in the keratinized type, the surface cells are full of keratin and dead; basal cells are active in mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial layers
Function: protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion
Location: nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane
81
Transitional epithelium
Description: resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columnar; surface cells dome shaped or squamous-like, depending on degree of organ stretch
Function: stretches readily and permits dissension of urinary organ by contained urine
Location: lines the ureters, bladder, and part of the urethra
82
3 types of cell junctions
Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Gap junctions
83
Tight junctions
Impermeable junctions prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space
84
Desmosomes
Anchoring junctions bind adjacent cells together and help form an internal tension-reducing network of fibers
85
Gap junctions
Communicating junctions allow ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next for intercellular communication
86
Microvilli
Fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells
Most abundant on epithelia that absorb nutrients or transport ions
Maximize the surface area across which small molecules enter or leave cells
Most common locations: small intestine and kidney tubules
87
Cilia
Whiplike, highly motile extensions of the apical surface membranes of certain epithelial cells
88
Membrane
Epithelia + underlying connective tissue
89
4 Body Membranes
Mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial
90
Where do connective tissue cell lines come from
Mesenchyme (mesoderm)
91
3 types of dense connective tissue
Regular, irregular, and elastic
92
Dense irregular tissue
Description: primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast; defense cells and fat cells are also present
Function: able to withstand tension exerted in many directions; provides structural strength
Location: fibrous capsules of organs and of joints; dermis of the skin; submucosa of digestive tract
93
Dense regular tissue
Description: primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastic; major cell type is the fibroblast
Function: attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction
Location: tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses
94
Elastic tissue
Description: dense regular connective tissue containing a high proportion of elastic fibers
Function: allows recoil of tissue following stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration
Location: walls of large arteries; within certain ligaments associated with the vertebral column; within the walls of the bronchial tubes
95
3 types of cartilage
Hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic
96
Hyaline Cartilage
Chondrocytes, no visible fibers
Description: amorphous but firm matrix; collagen fibers form an imperceptible network; chondroblasts produce the matrix and, when mature (chondrocytes), lie in lacunae
Location: forms most of the embryonic skeleton; covers the ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal cartilages of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea, and larynx
97
Fibrocartilage
Chondrocytes, fibers
Description: matrix similar to but less firm than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate
Location: intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint
98
Elastic Cartilage
Chondrocytes, elastic fibers
Description: Matrix similar to but less firm than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate
Location: intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint
99
Osteoblast vs. Osteocyte
```
Osteoblast= immature bone cell
Osteocyte= mature bone cell
```
100
Lamella vs. Lacunae
```
Lamella= thin, plate like structure, often one against many lamellae, respiratory
Lacunae= plural of lacuna, cavity within a matrix
```
101
Skeletal Muscle
Description: long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; obvious striations
Function: voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression
Location: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin
102
Cardiac Muscle
Description: branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized junctions (intercalated discs)
Function: as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control
Location: The walls of the heart
103
Smooth Muscle
Description: spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets
Function: propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control
Location: mostly in the walls of hollow organs
104
2 basic layers of the skin
Epidermis and dermis
105
Epidermis
A keritinized stratified squamous epithelium that contains four distinct types of cells; keratinocytes, melanocytes, tactile epithelial cells, and dendritic cells
106
Dermis
The second major region of the skin
Strong, flexible connective tissue
Binds the entire body together like a body stocking
107
Where do the nervous sensory structures and the appendages of the skin (hair follicles, glands, etc) rest?
Dermal layer of the skin
108
4 types of epidermal cells
Keratinocytes, melanocytes, dendritic cells, tactile epithelial cells
109
Keratinocytes
Most abundant and produce the outer protective layer of dead skin cells
110
Melanocytes
Produce melanin pigment in response to UV rays - tanning
111
Sebum
Comes from sebaceous glands in the skin
Oily product, secreted when the central cells in the alveoli accumulate only limps until they become engorged and burst apart
Acne: so much sebum is produced that it cannot be ducted from the glands quickly enough
112
Eccrine Sweat Glands
More numerous type
| Most abundant on the palms, soles, and forehead
113
Apocrine Sweat Glands
Mostly confined to the axillary, anal, and genital areas
Larger than eccrine glands, and their ducts open into hair follicles
Produce a special kind of sweat consisting of fatty substances and proteins, in addition to the components of true sweat
Viscous and sometimes a milky or yellow color
Musky smell, source of body odor
114
Functions of Bones
Support, movement, protection, mineral storage, blood cell formation and energy storage, energy metabolism
115
Classification of Bones
Long bones: longer than wide, bones in the limbs, elongated shape, fingers and toes (humerus)
Short bones: roughly cube-shaped, wrist and ankle (talus)
Flat bones: thin, flattened, and somewhat curved, cranial bones of the skull, ribs, sternum (breastbone), scapula (shoulder blade)
Irregular bones: various shapes (vertebra)
116
Structural features of a long bone
Epiphysis: the end of a long bone, attached to the shaft
Diaphysis: elongated shaft of a long bone
Medullary cavity: narrow cavity filled with yellow bone marrow
Articular cartilage: a thin layer of hyaline cartilage
Periosteum: membrane of fibrous connective tissue that covers the external surface of bones of the skeleton
117
Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment
Tuberosity, crest, trochanter, line, tubercle, epicondyle, spine, process
118
Tuberosity
Large rounded projection; may be roughened
119
Crest
Narrow ridge of bone; usually prominent
120
Trochanter
Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process
121
Line
Narrow ridge of bone; less prominent than a crest
122
Tubercle
Small rounded projection or process
123
Epicondyle
Raised area on or above a condyle
124
Spine
Sharp, slender, often pointed projection
125
Process
Any bony prominence
126
Surfaces that form joints
Head, facet, condyle
127
Head
Bony expansion carried on a narrow neck
128
Facet
Smooth, nearly flat articular surface
129
Condyle
Rounded articular projection, often articulates with a corresponding fossa
130
Depressions and openings
Foramen, groove, fissure, notch, fosa, meatus, sinus
131
Foramen
Round or oval opening through a bone
132
Groove
Furrow
133
Fissure
Narrow, slitlike opening
134
Notch
Indentation at the edge of a structure
135
Fossa
Shallow basinlike depression in a bone, often serving as an articular surface
136
Meatus
Canal-like passageway
137
Sinus
Cavity within a bone, filled with air and lined with mucous membrane
138
Osteon
Tube-shaped unit in mature, compact bone; consists of concentric layers of bone lamellae surrounding a central canal
139
Central (Haversion) canal
Runs through the core of each osteon
Lined with endosteum
Contains its own blood vessels, which supply nutrients to the bone cells of the osteon, and its own nerve fibers
140
Perforating (Volkman's) canal
Lie at right angles to the central canals and connect the blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the central canals and the marrow cavity
141
Intramembranous Ossification
Membranous bones form directly from mesenchyme without first being modeled in cartilage
Bones of the skull, and the clavicles (collarbones)
142
Endochondral Ossification
All bones from the base of the skull down, except for the clavicles
First modeled in hyaline cartilage, which is then gradually replaced by bone tissue
143
Endochondral ossification of a long bone
1. A bone collar forms around the diaphysis
2. Cartilage calcifies in the center of the diaphysis
3. The periosteal bud invades the diaphysis, and the first bone trabeculae form
4. Diaphysis elongates, and the medullary cavity forms
5. Epiphyses ossify, and cartilaginous epiphyseal plates separate diaphysis and epiphysis
144
Roles of osteoblast and osteoclast in remodeling of bone
Resorption of bone matrix by osteoclasts
| Deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
145
Osteoporosis
Low bone mass and a deterioration of the microscopic architecture of the bony skeleton
Bone resorption outages bone deposition, in association with elevated numbers of osteoclasts
146
Bone Resorption
Accomplished by osteoclasts
| Osteoclasts crawl along bone surfaces, essentially digging pits as they break down the bone tissue
147
Bone Deposition
Accomplished by osteoblasts
Cells lay down organic osteoid on bone surfaces, and calcium salts crystallize within this osteoid
Osteoblasts transform into osteocytes when they are surrounded by bone matrix
148
Axial skeleton
Skull, vertebral column, and bony thorax
149
What does the skull do
Combines the cranial and facial bones
150
8 Cranial Bones
Left and right parietal, frontal bone, occipital bone, left and right temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid
151
Facial bones to know
Nasal, lacrimal, zygomatic, mandible, maxilla
152
4 major sutures
Coronal, squamous, sagittal, lamdoid
153
Number of vertebrae in cervical, thoracic and lumbar divisions
Cervical: 7
Thoracic: 12
Lumbar: 5
154
Scoliosis
An abnormal lateral curvature of more than 10 degrees that occurs most often in the thoracic region
"Twisted disease"
155
Kyphosis
Hunchback
An exaggerated thoracic curvature that is most common in aged women because it often results from spinal fractures that follow osteoporosis
"Humped disease"
156
Lordosis
"Bent-backward disease"
Swayback, an accentuated lumbar curvature
Common in people carrying a "large load in front" such as obese men and pregnant women
157
Intervertebral Discs
Cushionlike pad composed of an inner sphere, the nucleus pulpous, and an outer collar of about 12 concentric rings, the anulus fibrosus
Fibrocartilage
158
Herniated Disc
Severe or sudden physical trauma to the spine - for example, due to lifting a heavy object - may cause one or more herniated discs
Usually involves rupture of the analus fibrosus followed by protrusion of the nucleus pulposus
159
Cervical Vertebrae
Body: small, wide side to side
| Vertebral foramen: triangular
160
Thoracic Vertebrae
Body: larger than cervical; heart-shaped; superior and inferior costal facets near pedicle
Vertebral foramen: circular
161
Lumbar Vertebrae
Body: massive; kidney-shaped
| Vertebral foramen: triangular
162
C1
Atlas
| Articulates with the base of the skull (occipital condyles)
163
C2
Axis
| Has the superior projecting dens (odontoid process) that serves as the axis for head rotation
164
First (superior) ribs
"True" ribs because they connect directly to the sternum
165
4 scapular features
Scapular spine, coracoid process, acromion, and glenoid cavity
166
Articulations of the humerus
Proximal is the glenoid fossa of scapula and distal is the radius and ulna
167
Which forearm bone is more lateral in the anatomic position
Radius
168
Which forearm bone has the olecranon process, coranoid process, trochlear notch and radial tuberosity
All ulna except
| Radial tuberosity radius
169
Pronation
Medial rotation of the forearm that causes the palm to face posteriorly
170
Supination
Lateral rotation of forearm that causes the palm to face anteriorly
171
8 carpal bones
Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrium, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate
172
Metacarpals
```
1= thumb
2= pointer
3= middle
4= ring
5= pinky
```
173
Sacroiliac joint
Connects the axial sacrum to the iliac portion of the pelvis
174
Anterior superior iliac spine
Origin of the sartorius muscle
175
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Origin of rectus femoris
176
Acetabulum
Vinegar cup
Socket of articulation for the head of the femur
Formed by all 3 pelvic bones
177
Patella
Sesamoid bone (like a sesame seed) formed with a tendon
178
2 bone pattern seen in the forearm
Also occurs in the lower leg with similar connecting interosseus membrane
179
Fibula
Lateral to tibia in anatomical position
180
Tibia
Principle weight bearing bone as it articulates with the femur superiorly and the talus inferiorly
181
Medial malleolus
Tibia
182
Lateral malleolus
Fibula
183
Knee and ankle
Hinge joints
184
Foot pattern follows hand
3 types of bones- tarsus (7), metatarsus (5), and phalanges (14)
185
Calcaneus
"Heel bone"
| Attachment for the gastric (Achilles) tendon
186
Talus
Articulates with the tibia superiorly and the calcaneus inferiorly
187
3 structural classes of joints
Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
188
Fibrous joint
Adjoining bones united by collagenic fibers
189
Cartilaginous joint
Adjoining bones united by cartilage
190
Synovial joint
Adjoining bones separated by a joint cavity, covered with articular cartilage, and enclosed within an articular capsule lined with synovial membrane
191
Syndesmosis
The bones are connected exclusively by ligaments
Distal radius and ulna
Distal tibia and fibula
192
2 types of cartilaginous joints
Synchondroses (hyaline) and symphysis (fibrocartilage)
193
Synchondroses
Bones united by hyaline cartilage
194
Symphyses
Bones united by fibrocartilage
195
General features of a synovial joint
Ligament, joint cavity, articular cartilage, synovial fluid, articular capsule
196
Bursal sac
Flattened fibrous sac lined by a synovial membrane
| Occur where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones overlie each other and rub together
197
Tendon sheath
Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon like a bun around a hot dog
Occur only on tendons that are subjected to friction, such as those that travel through joint cavities or are crowded together within narrow canals (as in the carpal tunnel of the wrist)
198
Bursal sac and tendon sheath
Contain synovial fluid and function to reduce friction during movement
199
Flexion
Decreases the angle between the bones, bringing the bones closer together
Flexion of the fingers: making a fist
Flexion of the forearm toward the arm at the elbow
Hip is flexed when thigh moves anteriorly
200
Extension
Reverse of flexion
Straightening action
Straightening fingers after making fist
201
Abduction
Moving away from body midline
| Raising arm or thigh laterally
202
Adduction
Opposite of abduction
| Movement of a limb toward the body midline
203
Pronation
Rotating the forearm so the palm faces posteriorly
204
Supination
Rotating the forearm so the palm faces anteriorly
205
Dorsiflexion
Lifting the foot so its superior surface approaches the shin
206
Plantar flexion
Depressing the foot elevating the heel
207
Inversion
Turning the sole of the foot medially
208
Eversion
Turning the sole of the foot laterally
209
3 features that contribute to synovial joint stability
Shape of the articular surface, ligaments and muscle tone
210
Plane joints
Metacarpals, carpals
211
Hinge joints
Humerus, ulna
212
Pivot joints
Ulna, radius
213
Condylar joints
Phalanges, metacarpals
214
Saddle joints
Metacarpal, trapezium
215
Ball-and-socket joints
Scapula, humerus
216
Shoulder
Ball and socket joint between humeral head and the glenoid cavity of the scapula
Multiaxial joint with movement in 3 planes: frontal, sagittal and transverse
217
Glenoid labrum
Rim of fibrocartilage that deepens the socket
218
Frontal plane
Vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
219
Sagittal plane
A vertical plane that divides the body or a body part into right and left portions
220
Elbow
Trochlear notch on the distal humerus articulates with the proximal ulna and the capitellum of the humerus articulates with the radial head
There is an annular ligament around the neck of the proximal radius attaching it to the ulna
The elbow has a hinge joint: proximal ulna to humeral trochlea and a pivot: radial head to capitulum
Has 2 unaxial joints
221
Wrist has 2 major joint surfaces
Radiocarpal joint between radius and scaphoid and lunate bones is a condylar joint with movements of flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction and circumduction
The inter carpal joint between proximal and distal rows of carpal bones is a plane joint with gliding movement
222
Hip
Ball-and-socket joint between femoral head and acetabulum of the coxal (hip) bone
The ace tabular labrum is fibrocartilage
The thick capsular ligaments increase stability with infrequent hip dislocation compared to the shoulder
223
Knee
Primarily a hinge joint
| Has some medial/internal and lateral/external rotation possible in the flexed state and during extension
224
Anterior cruciate ligament
Prevents excess anterior knee displacement
225
Posterior cruciate ligament
Prevents excess posterior knee movement
226
Ankle
Hinge joint between untied tibia-fibula and talus with dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
Eversion and inversion occur at the intertarsal joints
227
Deltoid ligament
Provides medial stability
228
Lateral ankle ligaments include:
Anterior and posterior talofibular ligaments and the calcaneofibular ligament
229
4 functional features of muscle
Contractility, excitability, extensibility and elasticity
230
Contractility
Muscle tissue contracts forcefully
231
Excitability
Nerve signals or other stimuli excite muscle cells, causing electrical impulses to travel along the cells' plasma membrane
232
Extensibility
Muscle tissue can be stretched
233
Elasticity
After being stretched, muscle tissue recoils passively and resumes its resting length
234
6 organizational levels of skeletal muscle
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Muscle (organ)
Fascicle (a portion of the muscle)
Muscle Fiber (cell)
Myofibril (complex organelle containing myofillaments)
Sacromere (a segment of myofibril)
Myofilament or Filament
```
235
Origin
The attachment of the muscle on the less movable bone
236
Insertion
The attachment on the more movable bone
237
Function of a muscle attachment (insertion on moveable bone)
Can change in other positions of movement, eg. elbow in curl vs. pull-up
238
Sarcomere
Basic unit for contraction in skeletal muscle
Bounded by a Z disc at each end
Titin connects the myosin filament to the Z disc
Structure results in the appearance of striations in skeletal muscle and the A band (myosin) doesn't change width during contraction
239
Myofilaments actin and myosin
Do not shorten - actin (thin filament) slides over myosin (thick filament)
240
Anatomic sites involved in muscle contraction
T tubules conduct the muscle excitation signal that releases Ca++ from the sacroplasmic reticulum
The Ca++ binds to a protein removing the block between actin and myosin and allows cross bridging between protein removing the block between actin and myosin and allows cross bridging between them
Powered by ATP the myosin head pivots in a "power stroke" and moves actin over myosin
This process is repeated to shorten the sarcomere and ultimately the entire muscle
241
Concentric contraction
A muscle generates force while shortening
242
Eccentric contraction
Generates force while lengthening
243
Neuromuscular junction
The point at which the nerve ending and the fiber meet
244
Motor unit
A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates
245
Slow oxidative fibers
Red color due to abundant myoglobin
Obtain energy from aerobic metabolic reactions
Contain a large number of mitochondria
Richly supplied with capillaries
Contract "slowly" and resistant to fatigue
Fibers are small in diameter
246
Fast glycolytic fibers
Contain little myoglobin and few mitochondria
About twice the diameter of slow-oxidative
Contain more myofilaments and generate more power
Depend on "anaerobic" pathways
Contract rapidly and "tire" quickly
