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Anatomy > Anatomy Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Anatomy Midterm 1 Flashcards

0
Q

Cellular level

A

Cells and their surroundings are made up of molecules. For example, a phospholipid molecule is a structural component of the plasma membrane
Phospholipid molecule –> phospholipid membrane –> forms most of the plasma membrane of a cell

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1
Q

Chemical level

A

Atoms combine to form molecules. Molecules combine to form the macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids)
Atoms –> molecule –> hemoglobin, a protein

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2
Q

Tissue level

A

Tissues consist of similar types of cells and associated extra cellular material. Epithelial tissue forms the inner lining of blood vessels

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3
Q

Organ level

A

An organ is a discrete structure made up of multiple tissue types. Examples include blood vessels, the liver brain, and femur

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4
Q

Organ system level

A

An organ system is a unified group of organs and tissues that perform a specific function. The example shown here is the cardiovascular system, showing blood vessels, blood, and the heart

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5
Q

Organismal level

A

The whole person is the most complex level of organization, the Organismal level, resulting from the simpler levels working interdependently

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6
Q

Structural levels of complexity in order (6)

A 
Chemical level
Cellular level
Tissue level
Organ level
Organ system level
Organismal level
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7
Q

Describe body in anatomical position

A

Palms facing out, standing up straight and facing forward

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8
Q

Regional terms of the body in anatomical position

A 
Cephalic (head)
Cervical (neck)
Thoracic (chest)
Upper limb (arms and wrists)
Abdominal
Pelvic (groin)
Manus (hand)
Pubic (genital)
Lower limb (hip, thigh, leg)
Pedal (foot, ankle)
Dorsum (back)
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9
Q

Superior (cranial)

A

Towards the head and or upper part of a structure of the body, above
The head is superior to the abdomen

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10
Q

Inferior (caudal)

A

Away from the head and or toward the lower part of a structure of the body, below
The intestines are inferior to the liver

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11
Q

Medial

A

Toward or at the midline of the body, on the inner side of

The heart is medial to the lungs

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12
Q

Lateral

A

Away from the midline of the body, on the outer side of

The thumb is lateral to the pinky

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13
Q

Proximal

A

Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
The elbow is proximal to the wrist

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14
Q

Distal

A

Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
The knee is distal to the thigh

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15
Q

Ipsilateral

A

On the same side

The right hand and the right foot are ipsilateral

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16
Q

Contralateral

A

On opposite sides

The right hand and left foot are contralateral

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17
Q

Anterior (ventral)

A

Toward or at the front of the body, in front of

The sternum is anterior to the heart

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18
Q

Posterior (dorsal)

A

Toward or at the back of the body, behind

The vertebra is posterior to the heart

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19
Q

Superficial (external)

A

Toward or at the body surface

The skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles

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20
Q

Deep (internal)

A

Away from the body surface, more internal

The lungs are deep to the skin

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21
Q

Frontal plane

A

Front view

Can see left and right lungs, liver, heart, stomach, arm

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22
Q

Median (midsagittal) plane

A

Side view

Can see rectum, vertebral column, intestines

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23
Q

Transverse plane

A

Cut body in half, top view

Can see liver, subcutaneous fat layer, spinal cord, aorta, body wall, pancreas, spleen

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24
Q

Cranial cavity

A

Skull

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25
Q

Vertebral cavity

A

Neck, spine

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26
Q

Thoracic cavity

A

Contains heart and lungs

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27
Q

Abdominal cavity

A

Contains digestive viscera

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28
Q

Pelvic cavity

A

Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

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29
Q

Abdomino-pelvic cavity

A

Abdomen

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30
Q

Ventral body cavity

A

Thoracic and abdominopevlic cavities

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31
Q

All body cavities

A 
Cranial cavity
Vertebral cavity
Thoracic cavity
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity
Ventral body cavity
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32
Q

Body cavities and membranes

A 
Visceral peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity (with serous fluid)
Stomach
Kidney (retroperioneal)
Wall of body trunk
Parietal peritoneum
Liver
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33
Q

What is the intersection point for the horizontal and vertical lines that divide the abdomen into 4 quadrants?

A

Navel

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34
Q

Right upper quadrant (RUQ)

A

Liver, gallbladder

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35
Q

Left upper quadrant (LUQ)

A

Diaphragm, spleen, stomach, transverse colon of large intestine

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36
Q

Right lower quadrant (RLQ)

A

Ascending colon of large intestine, small intestine, cecum, appendix

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37
Q

Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

A

Descending colon of large intestine, initial part of sigmoid colon, urinary bladder

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38
Q

The production of a protein

A
  1. Protein containing vesicles pinch off rough ER and migrate to fuse with membranes of Golgi apparatus
  2. Proteins are modified within the Golgi compartments
  3. Proteins are then packaged within different vesicles types, depending on their ultimate destination
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39
Q

3 main components of cells

A

Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus

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41
Q

Mitochondria

A

The site of oxidative phosphorylation and the aerobic production of ATP
Have their own circular ring shaped DNA that is separate from your nuclear DNA
Generate most of the cell’s energy, most complex organelle
More abundant in energy -requiring cells, like muscle cells and sperm

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42
Q

Simple diffusion

A

Fat-soluble molecules directly through the phospholipid bilayer down their concentration gradient

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43
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of water through the lipid bilayer

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44
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A

An integral protein that spans the plasma membrane enables the passage of a particular solute across the membrane

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45
Q

Active Transport

A

Some transport proteins use ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the plasma membrane against their concentration gradient

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46
Q

Exocytosis

A

A mechanism that moves substances out of the cell
Substance is enclosed in a vesicle
The vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane
Proteins from the vesicles (v-SNAREs) bind with membrane proteins (t-SNAREs)
The lipid layers from both membranes bind, and the vesicle releases its contents to the outside of the cell

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47
Q

Phagocytosis

A

The cell engulfs a large particle by forming projecting pseudopods (“false feet”) around it and enclosing it with a membrane sac called a phagosome. The phagosome then combines with a lysosome, and its contents are digested. Vesicle may or may not be protein-coated but has receptors capable of binding to microorganisms or solid particles

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48
Q

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

A

Extracellular substances bind to specific receptor proteins in regions of protein-coated pits, enabling the cell to ingest and concentrate specific substances in protein-coated vesicles. The ingested substance may simply be released inside the cell, or combined with a lysosome to digest contents, Receptors are recycled to the plasma membrane in vesicles

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49
Q

Pinocytosis

A

The cell “gulps” drops of extracellular fluid containing solutes into tiny vesicles. No receptors are used, so the process is nonspecific. Most vesicles are protein-coated

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50
Q

Ribosomes

A

Dense particles consisting of two subunits, each composed of ribosomal RNA and protein; free or attached to rough ER
Function: the sites of protein synthesis

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51
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Membrane system of sacs and tubules externally studded with ribosomes
Function: makes proteins that are secreted from the cell; makes the cell’s membranes

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52
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

Membranous system of sacs and tubules; free of ribosomes

Function: site of lipid and steroid hormone synthesis, lipid metabolism, and drug detoxification

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53
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

A stack of smooth membrane sacs close to the nucleus
Function: packages, modifies, and segregates proteins for secretion from the cell, inclusion in lysosomes, and incorporation into the plasma membrane

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54
Q

Lysosomes

A

Membranous sacs containing acid hydrolyses

Function: sites of intracellular digestion

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55
Q

Mitochondria

A

Rodlike, double-membrane structures; inner membrane folded into projections called cristae
Function: site of ATP synthesis; powerhouse of the cell

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56
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
Function: the enzymes detoxify a number off toxic substances; the most important enzyme, catalase, breaks down hydrogen peroxide

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57
Q

Fluid Mosaic Model

A

Depicts the plasma membrane as a double layer, or bilayer, of lipid molecules with protein molecules embedded within it

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58
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death
This process of controlled cellular suicide eliminates cells that are stressed, unneeded, excessive, or aged
Controlled cell death

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59
Q

Necrosis

A

Death of a cell or group of cells due to injury or disease
Acute injury causes the cells to swell and burst, and they induce an inflammatory response
Uncontrolled cell death

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60
Q

Hyperplasia

A

Excessive cell proliferation
Unlike cancer cells, hyper plastic cells retain their normal form and arrangement within tissues
Cells increase in number but not in size

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61
Q

Hypertrophy

A

Growth of an organ or tissue due to an increase in the size of its cells
A normal response of skeletal muscle cells to exercise

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62
Q

Cell Differentiation

A

When cells begin to specialize early in embryonic development
Some cells connect body parts or cover and line organs, some produce movement and move body parts, some store nutrients, some fight disease, some gather information and control body functions, and some reproduce

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63
Q

Tube-within-a-tube Body Plan

A

The inner tube extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the respiratory and digestive organs
The outer tube consists of the axial skeleton and associated axial muscles that make up the outer body wall, and nervous structures

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64
Q

Neurulation

A

As the notochord develops, it signals the overlying ectoderm to start forming the spinal cord and brain

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65
Q

3 Germ Layers in Embryological Development

A

Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ectoderm

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66
Q

Ectoderm

A

Epidermis, hair, nails, glands of skin
Brain and spinal cord
Neural crest and derivatives (sensory nerve cells and other nervous system structures, pigment cells, bones and blood vessels of the head)
Formed from epiblast cells that stay on dorsal surface

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67
Q

Endoderm

A

Epithelial lining and glands of digestive and respiratory tracts
Formed from migrating cells that replace the hypoblast

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68
Q

Mesoderm

A

Notochord: nucleus pulpous of intervertebral discs
Somite: vertebrae and ribs, dermis of dorsal body region, trunk and limb musculature
Intermediate mesoderm: kidneys, gonads
Lateral plate mesoderm –> Somatic mesoderm: parietal serosa, dermis of ventral body region, connective tissues of limbs (bones, joints, and ligaments), Spanchnic mesoderm: wall of digestive and respiratory tracts (except epithelial lining), visceral serosa, heart, blood vessels
Formed between epiblast and endoderm

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69
Q

Identify 1 adult tissue derivative from each germ layer

A

Ectoderm: brain, spinal cord, epidermis of skin
Endoderm: respiratory tubes, digestive organs, urinary bladder
Mesoderm: kidneys, gonads, heart, blood vessels

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70
Q

Basic functions of the epithelial surfaces that separate the internal you from the external environment

A

Protect, sensory reception, diffusion, secretion, absorption, ion transport, filtration and lubrication

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71
Q

3 basic shapes of epithelial cells

A

Squamous, cuboidal and columnar

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72
Q

Squamous

A

One layer: diffusion and filtration

More than one layer: protection

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73
Q

Cuboidal Columnar

A

One layer: secretion and absorption; ciliated types propel mucus or reproductive cells
More than one layer: protection; these tissue types are rare in humans

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74
Q

Transitional

A

More than one layer: protection; stretching to accommodate dissension of urinary structures

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75
Q

What are epithelial layers distinguished as

A

Simple and stratified

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76
Q

Simple squamous epithelium

A

Description: single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped central nuclei and sparse cytoplasm; the simplest of the epithelia
Function: allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important; produces lubricating fluid in serosae
Location: kidney glomeruli; air sacs of lungs; lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels; lining of ventral body cavity (serosae)

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77
Q

Simple cuboidal epithelium

A

Description: single layer of cube like cells with large, spherical central nuclei
Function: secretion and absorption
Location: kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of small glands; ovary surface

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78
Q

Simple columnar epithelium

A

Description: single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia; layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells)
Function: absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action
Location: nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus

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79
Q

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

A

Description: single layer of cells of differing heights, some not reaching the free surface; nuclei seen at different levels; may contain mucus-secreting goblet cells and bear cilia
Function: secretion, particularly of mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action
Location: nonciliated type in male’s sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract

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80
Q

Stratified squamous epithelium

A

Description: thick membrane composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cubical or columnar and metabolically active; surface cells are flattened (squamous); in the keratinized type, the surface cells are full of keratin and dead; basal cells are active in mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial layers
Function: protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion
Location: nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane

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81
Q

Transitional epithelium

A

Description: resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columnar; surface cells dome shaped or squamous-like, depending on degree of organ stretch
Function: stretches readily and permits dissension of urinary organ by contained urine
Location: lines the ureters, bladder, and part of the urethra

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82
Q

3 types of cell junctions

A

Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Gap junctions

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83
Q

Tight junctions

A

Impermeable junctions prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space

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84
Q

Desmosomes

A

Anchoring junctions bind adjacent cells together and help form an internal tension-reducing network of fibers

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85
Q

Gap junctions

A

Communicating junctions allow ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next for intercellular communication

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86
Q

Microvilli

A

Fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells
Most abundant on epithelia that absorb nutrients or transport ions
Maximize the surface area across which small molecules enter or leave cells
Most common locations: small intestine and kidney tubules

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87
Q

Cilia

A

Whiplike, highly motile extensions of the apical surface membranes of certain epithelial cells

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88
Q

Membrane

A

Epithelia + underlying connective tissue

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89
Q

4 Body Membranes

A

Mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial

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90
Q

Where do connective tissue cell lines come from

A

Mesenchyme (mesoderm)

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91
Q

3 types of dense connective tissue

A

Regular, irregular, and elastic

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92
Q

Dense irregular tissue

A

Description: primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast; defense cells and fat cells are also present
Function: able to withstand tension exerted in many directions; provides structural strength
Location: fibrous capsules of organs and of joints; dermis of the skin; submucosa of digestive tract

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93
Q

Dense regular tissue

A

Description: primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastic; major cell type is the fibroblast
Function: attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction
Location: tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses

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94
Q

Elastic tissue

A

Description: dense regular connective tissue containing a high proportion of elastic fibers
Function: allows recoil of tissue following stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration
Location: walls of large arteries; within certain ligaments associated with the vertebral column; within the walls of the bronchial tubes

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95
Q

3 types of cartilage

A

Hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic

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96
Q

Hyaline Cartilage

A

Chondrocytes, no visible fibers
Description: amorphous but firm matrix; collagen fibers form an imperceptible network; chondroblasts produce the matrix and, when mature (chondrocytes), lie in lacunae
Location: forms most of the embryonic skeleton; covers the ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal cartilages of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea, and larynx

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97
Q

Fibrocartilage

A

Chondrocytes, fibers
Description: matrix similar to but less firm than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate
Location: intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint

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98
Q

Elastic Cartilage

A

Chondrocytes, elastic fibers
Description: Matrix similar to but less firm than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate
Location: intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint

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99
Q

Osteoblast vs. Osteocyte

A 
Osteoblast= immature bone cell
Osteocyte= mature bone cell
100
Q

Lamella vs. Lacunae

A 
Lamella= thin, plate like structure, often one against many lamellae, respiratory  
Lacunae= plural of lacuna, cavity within a matrix
101
Q

Skeletal Muscle

A

Description: long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; obvious striations
Function: voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression
Location: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin

102
Q

Cardiac Muscle

A

Description: branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized junctions (intercalated discs)
Function: as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control
Location: The walls of the heart

103
Q

Smooth Muscle

A

Description: spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets
Function: propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control
Location: mostly in the walls of hollow organs

104
Q

2 basic layers of the skin

A

Epidermis and dermis

105
Q

Epidermis

A

A keritinized stratified squamous epithelium that contains four distinct types of cells; keratinocytes, melanocytes, tactile epithelial cells, and dendritic cells

106
Q

Dermis

A

The second major region of the skin
Strong, flexible connective tissue
Binds the entire body together like a body stocking

107
Q

Where do the nervous sensory structures and the appendages of the skin (hair follicles, glands, etc) rest?

A

Dermal layer of the skin

108
Q

4 types of epidermal cells

A

Keratinocytes, melanocytes, dendritic cells, tactile epithelial cells

109
Q

Keratinocytes

A

Most abundant and produce the outer protective layer of dead skin cells

110
Q

Melanocytes

A

Produce melanin pigment in response to UV rays - tanning

111
Q

Sebum

A

Comes from sebaceous glands in the skin
Oily product, secreted when the central cells in the alveoli accumulate only limps until they become engorged and burst apart
Acne: so much sebum is produced that it cannot be ducted from the glands quickly enough

112
Q

Eccrine Sweat Glands

A

More numerous type

Most abundant on the palms, soles, and forehead

113
Q

Apocrine Sweat Glands

A

Mostly confined to the axillary, anal, and genital areas
Larger than eccrine glands, and their ducts open into hair follicles
Produce a special kind of sweat consisting of fatty substances and proteins, in addition to the components of true sweat
Viscous and sometimes a milky or yellow color
Musky smell, source of body odor

114
Q

Functions of Bones

A

Support, movement, protection, mineral storage, blood cell formation and energy storage, energy metabolism

115
Q

Classification of Bones

A

Long bones: longer than wide, bones in the limbs, elongated shape, fingers and toes (humerus)
Short bones: roughly cube-shaped, wrist and ankle (talus)
Flat bones: thin, flattened, and somewhat curved, cranial bones of the skull, ribs, sternum (breastbone), scapula (shoulder blade)
Irregular bones: various shapes (vertebra)

116
Q

Structural features of a long bone

A

Epiphysis: the end of a long bone, attached to the shaft
Diaphysis: elongated shaft of a long bone
Medullary cavity: narrow cavity filled with yellow bone marrow
Articular cartilage: a thin layer of hyaline cartilage
Periosteum: membrane of fibrous connective tissue that covers the external surface of bones of the skeleton

117
Q

Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment

A

Tuberosity, crest, trochanter, line, tubercle, epicondyle, spine, process

118
Q

Tuberosity

A

Large rounded projection; may be roughened

119
Q

Crest

A

Narrow ridge of bone; usually prominent

120
Q

Trochanter

A

Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process

121
Q

Line

A

Narrow ridge of bone; less prominent than a crest

122
Q

Tubercle

A

Small rounded projection or process

123
Q

Epicondyle

A

Raised area on or above a condyle

124
Q

Spine

A

Sharp, slender, often pointed projection

125
Q

Process

A

Any bony prominence

126
Q

Surfaces that form joints

A

Head, facet, condyle

127
Q

Head

A

Bony expansion carried on a narrow neck

128
Q

Facet

A

Smooth, nearly flat articular surface

129
Q

Condyle

A

Rounded articular projection, often articulates with a corresponding fossa

130
Q

Depressions and openings

A

Foramen, groove, fissure, notch, fosa, meatus, sinus

131
Q

Foramen

A

Round or oval opening through a bone

132
Q

Groove

A

Furrow

133
Q

Fissure

A

Narrow, slitlike opening

134
Q

Notch

A

Indentation at the edge of a structure

135
Q

Fossa

A

Shallow basinlike depression in a bone, often serving as an articular surface

136
Q

Meatus

A

Canal-like passageway

137
Q

Sinus

A

Cavity within a bone, filled with air and lined with mucous membrane

138
Q

Osteon

A

Tube-shaped unit in mature, compact bone; consists of concentric layers of bone lamellae surrounding a central canal

139
Q

Central (Haversion) canal

A

Runs through the core of each osteon
Lined with endosteum
Contains its own blood vessels, which supply nutrients to the bone cells of the osteon, and its own nerve fibers

140
Q

Perforating (Volkman’s) canal

A

Lie at right angles to the central canals and connect the blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the central canals and the marrow cavity

141
Q

Intramembranous Ossification

A

Membranous bones form directly from mesenchyme without first being modeled in cartilage
Bones of the skull, and the clavicles (collarbones)

142
Q

Endochondral Ossification

A

All bones from the base of the skull down, except for the clavicles
First modeled in hyaline cartilage, which is then gradually replaced by bone tissue

143
Q

Endochondral ossification of a long bone

A
  1. A bone collar forms around the diaphysis
  2. Cartilage calcifies in the center of the diaphysis
  3. The periosteal bud invades the diaphysis, and the first bone trabeculae form
  4. Diaphysis elongates, and the medullary cavity forms
  5. Epiphyses ossify, and cartilaginous epiphyseal plates separate diaphysis and epiphysis
144
Q

Roles of osteoblast and osteoclast in remodeling of bone

A

Resorption of bone matrix by osteoclasts

Deposition of new bone by osteoblasts

145
Q

Osteoporosis

A

Low bone mass and a deterioration of the microscopic architecture of the bony skeleton
Bone resorption outages bone deposition, in association with elevated numbers of osteoclasts

146
Q

Bone Resorption

A

Accomplished by osteoclasts

Osteoclasts crawl along bone surfaces, essentially digging pits as they break down the bone tissue

147
Q

Bone Deposition

A

Accomplished by osteoblasts
Cells lay down organic osteoid on bone surfaces, and calcium salts crystallize within this osteoid
Osteoblasts transform into osteocytes when they are surrounded by bone matrix

148
Q

Axial skeleton

A

Skull, vertebral column, and bony thorax

149
Q

What does the skull do

A

Combines the cranial and facial bones

150
Q

8 Cranial Bones

A

Left and right parietal, frontal bone, occipital bone, left and right temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid

151
Q

Facial bones to know

A

Nasal, lacrimal, zygomatic, mandible, maxilla

152
Q

4 major sutures

A

Coronal, squamous, sagittal, lamdoid

153
Q

Number of vertebrae in cervical, thoracic and lumbar divisions

A

Cervical: 7
Thoracic: 12
Lumbar: 5

154
Q

Scoliosis

A

An abnormal lateral curvature of more than 10 degrees that occurs most often in the thoracic region
“Twisted disease”

155
Q

Kyphosis

A

Hunchback
An exaggerated thoracic curvature that is most common in aged women because it often results from spinal fractures that follow osteoporosis
“Humped disease”

156
Q

Lordosis

A

“Bent-backward disease”
Swayback, an accentuated lumbar curvature
Common in people carrying a “large load in front” such as obese men and pregnant women

157
Q

Intervertebral Discs

A

Cushionlike pad composed of an inner sphere, the nucleus pulpous, and an outer collar of about 12 concentric rings, the anulus fibrosus
Fibrocartilage

158
Q

Herniated Disc

A

Severe or sudden physical trauma to the spine - for example, due to lifting a heavy object - may cause one or more herniated discs
Usually involves rupture of the analus fibrosus followed by protrusion of the nucleus pulposus

159
Q

Cervical Vertebrae

A

Body: small, wide side to side

Vertebral foramen: triangular

160
Q

Thoracic Vertebrae

A

Body: larger than cervical; heart-shaped; superior and inferior costal facets near pedicle
Vertebral foramen: circular

161
Q

Lumbar Vertebrae

A

Body: massive; kidney-shaped

Vertebral foramen: triangular

162
Q

C1

A

Atlas

Articulates with the base of the skull (occipital condyles)

163
Q

C2

A

Axis

Has the superior projecting dens (odontoid process) that serves as the axis for head rotation

164
Q

First (superior) ribs

A

“True” ribs because they connect directly to the sternum

165
Q

4 scapular features

A

Scapular spine, coracoid process, acromion, and glenoid cavity

166
Q

Articulations of the humerus

A

Proximal is the glenoid fossa of scapula and distal is the radius and ulna

167
Q

Which forearm bone is more lateral in the anatomic position

A

Radius

168
Q

Which forearm bone has the olecranon process, coranoid process, trochlear notch and radial tuberosity

A

All ulna except

Radial tuberosity radius

169
Q

Pronation

A

Medial rotation of the forearm that causes the palm to face posteriorly

170
Q

Supination

A

Lateral rotation of forearm that causes the palm to face anteriorly

171
Q

8 carpal bones

A

Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrium, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate

172
Q

Metacarpals

A 
1= thumb
2= pointer
3= middle
4= ring
5= pinky
173
Q

Sacroiliac joint

A

Connects the axial sacrum to the iliac portion of the pelvis

174
Q

Anterior superior iliac spine

A

Origin of the sartorius muscle

175
Q

Anterior inferior iliac spine

A

Origin of rectus femoris

176
Q

Acetabulum

A

Vinegar cup
Socket of articulation for the head of the femur
Formed by all 3 pelvic bones

177
Q

Patella

A

Sesamoid bone (like a sesame seed) formed with a tendon

178
Q

2 bone pattern seen in the forearm

A

Also occurs in the lower leg with similar connecting interosseus membrane

179
Q

Fibula

A

Lateral to tibia in anatomical position

180
Q

Tibia

A

Principle weight bearing bone as it articulates with the femur superiorly and the talus inferiorly

181
Q

Medial malleolus

A

Tibia

182
Q

Lateral malleolus

A

Fibula

183
Q

Knee and ankle

A

Hinge joints

184
Q

Foot pattern follows hand

A

3 types of bones- tarsus (7), metatarsus (5), and phalanges (14)

185
Q

Calcaneus

A

“Heel bone”

Attachment for the gastric (Achilles) tendon

186
Q

Talus

A

Articulates with the tibia superiorly and the calcaneus inferiorly

187
Q

3 structural classes of joints

A

Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial

188
Q

Fibrous joint

A

Adjoining bones united by collagenic fibers

189
Q

Cartilaginous joint

A

Adjoining bones united by cartilage

190
Q

Synovial joint

A

Adjoining bones separated by a joint cavity, covered with articular cartilage, and enclosed within an articular capsule lined with synovial membrane

191
Q

Syndesmosis

A

The bones are connected exclusively by ligaments
Distal radius and ulna
Distal tibia and fibula

192
Q

2 types of cartilaginous joints

A

Synchondroses (hyaline) and symphysis (fibrocartilage)

193
Q

Synchondroses

A

Bones united by hyaline cartilage

194
Q

Symphyses

A

Bones united by fibrocartilage

195
Q

General features of a synovial joint

A

Ligament, joint cavity, articular cartilage, synovial fluid, articular capsule

196
Q

Bursal sac

A

Flattened fibrous sac lined by a synovial membrane

Occur where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones overlie each other and rub together

197
Q

Tendon sheath

A

Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon like a bun around a hot dog
Occur only on tendons that are subjected to friction, such as those that travel through joint cavities or are crowded together within narrow canals (as in the carpal tunnel of the wrist)

198
Q

Bursal sac and tendon sheath

A

Contain synovial fluid and function to reduce friction during movement

199
Q

Flexion

A

Decreases the angle between the bones, bringing the bones closer together
Flexion of the fingers: making a fist
Flexion of the forearm toward the arm at the elbow
Hip is flexed when thigh moves anteriorly

200
Q

Extension

A

Reverse of flexion
Straightening action
Straightening fingers after making fist

201
Q

Abduction

A

Moving away from body midline

Raising arm or thigh laterally

202
Q

Adduction

A

Opposite of abduction

Movement of a limb toward the body midline

203
Q

Pronation

A

Rotating the forearm so the palm faces posteriorly

204
Q

Supination

A

Rotating the forearm so the palm faces anteriorly

205
Q

Dorsiflexion

A

Lifting the foot so its superior surface approaches the shin

206
Q

Plantar flexion

A

Depressing the foot elevating the heel

207
Q

Inversion

A

Turning the sole of the foot medially

208
Q

Eversion

A

Turning the sole of the foot laterally

209
Q

3 features that contribute to synovial joint stability

A

Shape of the articular surface, ligaments and muscle tone

210
Q

Plane joints

A

Metacarpals, carpals

211
Q

Hinge joints

A

Humerus, ulna

212
Q

Pivot joints

A

Ulna, radius

213
Q

Condylar joints

A

Phalanges, metacarpals

214
Q

Saddle joints

A

Metacarpal, trapezium

215
Q

Ball-and-socket joints

A

Scapula, humerus

216
Q

Shoulder

A

Ball and socket joint between humeral head and the glenoid cavity of the scapula
Multiaxial joint with movement in 3 planes: frontal, sagittal and transverse

217
Q

Glenoid labrum

A

Rim of fibrocartilage that deepens the socket

218
Q

Frontal plane

A

Vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts

219
Q

Sagittal plane

A

A vertical plane that divides the body or a body part into right and left portions

220
Q

Elbow

A

Trochlear notch on the distal humerus articulates with the proximal ulna and the capitellum of the humerus articulates with the radial head
There is an annular ligament around the neck of the proximal radius attaching it to the ulna
The elbow has a hinge joint: proximal ulna to humeral trochlea and a pivot: radial head to capitulum
Has 2 unaxial joints

221
Q

Wrist has 2 major joint surfaces

A

Radiocarpal joint between radius and scaphoid and lunate bones is a condylar joint with movements of flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction and circumduction
The inter carpal joint between proximal and distal rows of carpal bones is a plane joint with gliding movement

222
Q

Hip

A

Ball-and-socket joint between femoral head and acetabulum of the coxal (hip) bone
The ace tabular labrum is fibrocartilage
The thick capsular ligaments increase stability with infrequent hip dislocation compared to the shoulder

223
Q

Knee

A

Primarily a hinge joint

Has some medial/internal and lateral/external rotation possible in the flexed state and during extension

224
Q

Anterior cruciate ligament

A

Prevents excess anterior knee displacement

225
Q

Posterior cruciate ligament

A

Prevents excess posterior knee movement

226
Q

Ankle

A

Hinge joint between untied tibia-fibula and talus with dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
Eversion and inversion occur at the intertarsal joints

227
Q

Deltoid ligament

A

Provides medial stability

228
Q

Lateral ankle ligaments include:

A

Anterior and posterior talofibular ligaments and the calcaneofibular ligament

229
Q

4 functional features of muscle

A

Contractility, excitability, extensibility and elasticity

230
Q

Contractility

A

Muscle tissue contracts forcefully

231
Q

Excitability

A

Nerve signals or other stimuli excite muscle cells, causing electrical impulses to travel along the cells’ plasma membrane

232
Q

Extensibility

A

Muscle tissue can be stretched

233
Q

Elasticity

A

After being stretched, muscle tissue recoils passively and resumes its resting length

234
Q

6 organizational levels of skeletal muscle

A 
Muscle (organ)
Fascicle (a portion of the muscle)
Muscle Fiber (cell)
Myofibril (complex organelle containing myofillaments)
Sacromere (a segment of myofibril)
Myofilament or Filament
235
Q

Origin

A

The attachment of the muscle on the less movable bone

236
Q

Insertion

A

The attachment on the more movable bone

237
Q

Function of a muscle attachment (insertion on moveable bone)

A

Can change in other positions of movement, eg. elbow in curl vs. pull-up

238
Q

Sarcomere

A

Basic unit for contraction in skeletal muscle
Bounded by a Z disc at each end
Titin connects the myosin filament to the Z disc
Structure results in the appearance of striations in skeletal muscle and the A band (myosin) doesn’t change width during contraction

239
Q

Myofilaments actin and myosin

A

Do not shorten - actin (thin filament) slides over myosin (thick filament)

240
Q

Anatomic sites involved in muscle contraction

A

T tubules conduct the muscle excitation signal that releases Ca++ from the sacroplasmic reticulum
The Ca++ binds to a protein removing the block between actin and myosin and allows cross bridging between protein removing the block between actin and myosin and allows cross bridging between them
Powered by ATP the myosin head pivots in a “power stroke” and moves actin over myosin
This process is repeated to shorten the sarcomere and ultimately the entire muscle

241
Q

Concentric contraction

A

A muscle generates force while shortening

242
Q

Eccentric contraction

A

Generates force while lengthening

243
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

The point at which the nerve ending and the fiber meet

244
Q

Motor unit

A

A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates

245
Q

Slow oxidative fibers

A

Red color due to abundant myoglobin
Obtain energy from aerobic metabolic reactions
Contain a large number of mitochondria
Richly supplied with capillaries
Contract “slowly” and resistant to fatigue
Fibers are small in diameter

246
Q

Fast glycolytic fibers

A

Contain little myoglobin and few mitochondria
About twice the diameter of slow-oxidative
Contain more myofilaments and generate more power
Depend on “anaerobic” pathways
Contract rapidly and “tire” quickly

Anatomy (4 decks)

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