Anatomy GEM 201 Part 2 Flashcards
What is the functional unit of the nervous system?
What’s the difference between dendrites and axons.
What is a synaptic knob?
What is a synapse
What are the types of synapses
The neuron or the nerve cell or the nerve fiber.
These process,receive and give signals to other parts of the body.
Dendrites are shorter than axons and axons are bigger and longer than dendrites.
Axon starts at the hillock and ends with the axon terminals and axon terminals ends with the synaptic knobs.
Synaptic knobs connect with a neuron to cause a synapse.
A synapse is A synapse is the junction or connection between two nerve cells (neurons), or between a neuron and another cell (like a muscle cell), where nerve impulses are transmitted from one to another. It’s where communication between cells happens in the nervous system.
The vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane of the synaptic knob (sort of dots or bulbs at the end of the axon terminal).
This process is called exocytosis:
1. The vesicles move toward the presynaptic membrane.
2. They fuse with the membrane.
3. They release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
4. The neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
So, the vesicles do not cross—only the neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and interact with the postsynaptic membrane.
Types of Synapses (Based on Structure/Location):
1. Axo-dendritic synapse
• Axon → Dendrite
• Most common type.
• A presynaptic axon terminal connects to the dendrite of the next neuron.
2. Axo-somatic synapse
• Axon → Cell body (soma)
• Can have a strong influence on whether the next neuron fires an action potential.
3. Axo-axonic synapse
• Axon → Another axon
• Often modulates the amount of neurotransmitter the second neuron releases.
4. Dendro-dendritic synapse
• Dendrite → Dendrite
• Less common; seen in certain specialized areas like the olfactory bulb.
So yes, what you saw makes sense! You were just referring to this structural classification, which complements the earlier functional classification (chemical vs electrical
what are the supporting cells in a typical neuron?
State the types of the supporting cells
Why aren’t all neurons myelinated?
Learn the nervous system from the GEM ACCESS COURSE
What is a collateral axon
A typical neuron is supported by cells called glial cells (also known as neuroglial cells), which help with functions such as myelination. The most abundant cells in the nervous system, however, are the glial cells, not the neurons.
Types of Glial Cells:
In the Central Nervous System (CNS):
1. Astrocytes – Maintain the blood-brain barrier, provide nutrients, and support neuronal function.
2. Oligodendrocytes – Produce myelin sheaths around axons in the CNS.
3. Microglia – Act as immune cells of the CNS; remove debris and pathogens.
4. Ependymal cells – Ependymal cells form the epithelial lining of the ventricles in the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. They help produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) .
Line the ventricles and help produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
In the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
1. Schwann cells – Form myelin sheaths around axons in the PNS.
2. Satellite cells – Support and nourish neurons in peripheral ganglia.
Why all neurons aren’t myelinated
1. Different messages need different speeds
Some messages in your body need to travel very fast—like when you touch something hot. You need to quickly pull your hand away. That’s where myelinated neurons are useful—they send signals super fast.
But not all messages need to be that fast. For example:
• The nerves that control digestion, slow pain (like dull aches), or temperature regulation don’t need split-second speed.
• Unmyelinated neurons are slower, but they’re good enough for these jobs—and they take up less space and use less energy.
- It’s about balance and efficiency
If every neuron were myelinated, the nervous system would:
• Be bulkier,
• Use more energy,
• Take up too much space.
So, the body prioritizes speed only where it’s necessary.
Example:
• Fast message (myelinated): “Ouch, the iron is hot!” → Pull your hand immediately.
• Slow message (unmyelinated): “Hmm, my stomach feels a bit uncomfortable.”
A collateral axon (or axon collateral) is a branch that comes off the main axon of a neuron.
• It allows one neuron to communicate with multiple target cells by sending signals to different locations.
• These branches can form synapses with other neurons, muscles, or glands.
• This branching increases the influence and connectivity of a single neuron within a neural network.
What happens when an electrical impulse reaches the axon terminal?
Great! Here’s the clear sequence:
1. Action potential (electrical impulse) reaches the axon terminal.
2. Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) enter the axon terminal.
3. Calcium causes vesicles (carrying neurotransmitters) to fuse with the presynaptic membrane.
4. Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft.
5. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
6. This starts a new electrical signal in the next neuron (postsynaptic cell).
So, once vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane, neurotransmitters are released, and the message or electrical impulse is passed on to the next neuron or nerve cell.
Exactly! Yes — the released neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, and that triggers a new electrical impulse (called an action potential) in the next nerve cell.
So simply put:
Electrical → Chemical → Electrical
Impulse becomes chemical in the synapse, then turns back into an electrical impulse in the next neuron.
What is the composition of a nerve from inside to outside.
Bundle of axons is called?
What is the sympathetic chain
Sure! Here’s the full explanation with both parts integrated clearly:
Composition of a Nerve (Layered Structure):
1. Axon – This is the long, slender projection of a neuron that transmits electrical impulses.
2. Myelin Sheath – In many neurons, the axon is wrapped in a myelin sheath, which acts as insulation to speed up nerve signal transmission. Not all axons are myelinated.
3. Endoneurium – A delicate connective tissue that surrounds each individual axon (whether myelinated or not).
4. Fascicle – A bundle of axons, each already wrapped in endoneurium.
5. Perineurium – A protective sheath that wraps around the entire fascicle (bundle of axons). It maintains the internal environment and acts as a barrier.
6. Epineurium – The outermost connective tissue layer that wraps around multiple fascicles along with blood vessels, forming the entire peripheral nerve.
Summary Line (For Easier Memorization):
Axon → Myelin sheath → Endoneurium → Fascicle → Perineurium → Epineurium
A nerve has fascicles with blood vessels and all are wrapped by the epineurium. Blood vessels run between and around the fascicles.
Bundle of axons is called a fascicle.
A ganglion is actually a group of cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
In the central nervous system (CNS), a group of cell bodies is called a nucleus.
So:
• PNS → Ganglion (e.g., dorsal root ganglion)
• CNS → Nucleus (e.g., basal nuclei)
Let me know if you need more clarification!
Ulnae nerve innervates most of the intrinsic muscles in the hand. Sensory neurons are long and have cell bodies near the spinal cord. Satellite cells around the cell bodies form ganglion. The sympathetic chain.
No problem! Let’s break it down in a very simple way:
1. Ulnar nerve:
• It controls most of the small muscles in your hand that help you move your fingers smoothly.
2. Sensory neurons:
• These are nerves that carry messages from your body to your spinal cord/brain (like pain, heat, touch).
• Their main body (called cell body) is located close to the spinal cord, not in the hand or leg.
3. Ganglion (plural: ganglia):
• This is like a small collection or cluster of nerve cell bodies (a little “nerve center”) near the spinal cord.
4. Satellite cells:
• These are supporting cells that surround and protect those nerve cell bodies inside the ganglion.
5. Sympathetic chain:
• This is a line of ganglia (nerve cell clusters) that are part of the autonomic nervous system, which controls things like heart rate, digestion, and sweating (things you don’t control consciously).
Sensory nerves – These carry messages like pain or touch from your body to your brain. Their main “nerve center” (cell body) sits near the spine.
3. Ganglion – A small group of those nerve centers (cell bodies) near the spine.
4. Satellite cells – They surround and protect those nerve centers in the ganglion.
5. Sympathetic chain – A chain of nerve centers that help control things like heartbeat and breathing without you thinking about it. The sympathetic chain is a group of nerves next to the spine that helps control automatic body responses like heartbeat, breathing, and sweating, especially during stress or danger.
What is the function of the capillary
What is closed circulation
Connects arteries and veins.
A closed circulation loads and offloads things. Yes, that’s correct!
In closed circulation, blood flows in a continuous loop inside blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries). As it moves:
• It loads (picks up) things like oxygen and nutrients from the lungs and digestive system.
• It offloads (delivers) those things to the tissues and organs.
• It also picks up waste like carbon dioxide to be removed from the body.
So, it’s a system of constant loading and offloading to keep the body working properly.
State the types of arteries and examples underneath plus differences
Types of Arteries:
1. Elastic Arteries:
• These are closest to the heart and experience high pressure from the forceful pumping of blood.
• They have lots of elastic fibers in their walls to stretch and recoil, helping to maintain blood pressure and flow.
• Examples: Aorta (ascending, arch, and descending), pulmonary trunk.
2. Muscular Arteries:
• These arise from elastic arteries and distribute blood to specific organs.
• They have more smooth muscle and fewer elastic fibers, allowing them to regulate blood flow by vasoconstriction or vasodilation.
• Examples: Renal arteries, mesenteric arteries, celiac trunk, subclavian arteries.
3. Small Arteries:
• These are branches of muscular arteries, smaller in diameter but still with a muscular wall.
• They further distribute blood to tissues.
4. Arterioles:
• These are the smallest arteries that directly lead into capillary beds.
• They control blood flow into tissues and play a key role in regulating blood pressure.
• After the arterioles, blood enters capillaries, which are the loading/offloading centers for gases, nutrients, and wastes.
5. Venules:
• Capillaries drain into venules, which then continue the return of blood toward the heart through veins.
Perfect! Here’s a clear breakdown of the structural differences in the layers of the different types of arteries:
- Elastic Arteries (e.g. Aorta):
• Tunica Intima: Thin layer, endothelium with a bit of connective tissue.
• Tunica Media: Thickest layer, lots of elastic fibers, some smooth muscle — this is what helps it stretch and recoil with heartbeats.
• Tunica Externa (Adventitia): Thin, with connective tissue and vasa vasorum (tiny vessels that supply the wall). - Muscular Arteries (e.g. Renal, Subclavian):
• Tunica Intima: Still thin, may have internal elastic lamina (a clear wavy line of elastic tissue).
• Tunica Media: Mostly smooth muscle, less elastic fibers than elastic arteries — this muscle layer helps control blood flow by vasoconstriction or vasodilation.
• Tunica Externa: Thicker than in elastic arteries, made of connective tissue and vasa vasorum. - Small Arteries & Arterioles:
• Tunica Intima: Very thin, sometimes just endothelium.
• Tunica Media: Few layers of smooth muscle, little to no elastic tissue.
• Tunica Externa: Very thin or absent.
Simple way to remember:
• Elastic arteries: More elastic fibers in media.
• Muscular arteries: More muscle cells in media.
• Small arteries/arterioles: Thin walls, mostly muscle, less elastic, minimal externa.
Sure! Here are three common examples each for small arteries and arterioles, with brief notes:
Small Arteries:
1. Radial artery branches – in the forearm, before arterioles.
2. Splenic artery branches – supply smaller parts of the spleen.
3. Tibial artery branches – supply parts of the leg muscles.
Arterioles:
1. Skin arterioles – help regulate temperature and blood flow to the skin.
2. Renal arterioles (afferent and efferent) – control blood flow to glomeruli in the kidneys.
3. Cerebral arterioles – regulate blood flow to different parts of the brain.
State the types of veins and their differences
So from smallest to largest: venules to small veins to vein to vena cava.
Types of Veins:
1. Large Veins:
• Example: Inferior vena cava, superior vena cava, portal vein.
• Structure:
• Thick tunica externa (adventitia) – the outer layer is very strong with collagen and elastic fibers.
• Tunica media (middle layer) is thin – fewer smooth muscles than arteries.
• Tunica intima (inner layer) has endothelium and sometimes valves.
2. Medium-Sized Veins (Muscular Veins):
• Example: Radial vein, femoral vein, renal vein.
• Structure:
• Also have all three layers.
• Tunica media has more smooth muscle than in large veins but still not thick.
• Tunica externa is still dominant and thicker than tunica media.
• Valves present – to prevent backflow of blood.
3. Small Veins and Venules:
• Examples: Postcapillary venules, small veins in skin and organs.
• Structure:
• Very thin walls.
• Mostly endothelium and a little connective tissue.
• Some may lack smooth muscle.
• Venules near capillaries are the thinnest and have more permeability for exchange.
Main Differences (Compared to Arteries):
• Veins have thinner walls and larger lumens.
• Less elastic tissue and smooth muscle.
• Tunica externa is the thickest layer (in arteries, it’s tunica media).
• Valves are present in many veins, especially in limbs.
• Lower pressure system compared to arteries.
Want me to recap it all in a super short summary line?
Why do body activités enhance venous return
Great question!
Body activities enhance venous return because they help push blood back to the heart, especially since veins work under low pressure and need extra help to move blood upward—against gravity.
Here’s how:
1. Muscle Pump:
When you move or walk, your skeletal muscles contract and squeeze the nearby veins, pushing blood toward the heart. Valves in the veins prevent the blood from flowing backward.
2. Respiratory Pump:
During breathing, especially inhalation, pressure in the chest cavity drops and pressure in the abdomen increases, which helps draw blood from abdominal veins into the chest and heart.
3. Increased Heart Activity:
Physical activity increases heart rate and force of contraction, which helps pull more blood into the heart, encouraging more blood return from the veins.
So basically, movement, breathing, and heart action all work together like a team to improve venous return.
Want me to summarize this in one short line for easy memorization?
Explain the following:
anatomic end arteries and functional end arteries
AEA: if you block the level, tissue it’s supplying will die. If you block it and the tissue doesn’t die, it means you haven’t reached or blocked the AEA level
Yes, your statement is on the right track and can be refined a bit for clarity:
“If you block a segment at the level of the Anatomic End Artery (AEA), the tissue it supplies will die. If the tissue doesn’t die, then either it’s not a true AEA or the blockage is not at the exact AEA level yet.”
Explanation:
• Anatomic End Artery means there is no collateral supply—so if you block it, the tissue has no alternative blood source, and ischemia or tissue death will occur.
• If tissue still survives after a block, it either:
• Has collateral supply (i.e., not a true end artery),
• Or you haven’t blocked the exact point where it becomes end-arterial.
FEA: these have two arteries rjay are connected by anastomoses. A main and supporting artery. If you block the main artery level and the tissue doesn’t die, then that artery either isn’t the main artery but is the supporting artery or it means you haven’t reached the functional end artery level. The supporting artery gives blood to support but it’s not enough to prevent the tissue from dying if the main artery is blocked even though both arteries supply that one tissue.
State the types of capillaries and state the differences between them and which organs they’re likely to be seen in
First of all, capillaries have pores through which substances can be exchanged. The nature of these pores determine the types of capillaries and the part of the body it will be found at.
Types:
1. Continuous Capillaries:
• These have very small pores (intercellular clefts) between endothelial cells.
• The endothelial cells are joined by tight junctions, which regulate what can pass through.
• The capillary wall is made of a single layer of endothelial cells.
• These pores allow selective exchange of substances, mostly small molecules like water, ions, and gases.
• Most abundant type of capillaries, found almost everywhere in the body, especially in muscles, lungs, skin, and the brain (where it forms part of the blood-brain barrier
2. Fenestrated capillaries: pores are larger than the ones in the continuous capillaries. The pores are within cells not in between the cells unlike is seen in continuous capillaries. These allow faster exchange of small molecules, including hormones and nutrients.• Common in tissues where active absorption or filtration occurs, such as the kidneys, intestines, and endocrine glands. Example is intestines and kidneys
- Sinusoïdal: there’s extra speed here. The pores in between the endothelial cells called gaps are there for extra speedy exchange of materials. They’re very big. It has discontinuous basement membrane and large fenestrations. eg is the liver.
Pores within the endothelial cells are the large fenestrations.
The gaps allow exchange of large molecules, like proteins and even blood cells.
• Fastest exchange happens here due to the wide openings.
• Found in liver, spleen, bone marrow, and lymph nodes where exchange of larger materials is needed.
Note:
Perfect thoughts — here’s a cleaner version for clarity and flow:
Red blood cells (RBCs) remain within the lumen of blood vessels, even when there are gaps in the capillaries. However, white blood cells (WBCs) can move between the vessel and the interstitial space through a process called diapedesis.
Blood plasma, carrying nutrients, can leak into interstitial spaces. If too much leaks out, it can lead to edema (swelling). This leaked fluid surrounding the cells is known as lymph.
The lymphatic system plays a key role in collecting this excess fluid and returning it to the bloodstream. This prevents low blood pressure that could result from a loss of too much fluid from circulation.
Basement membrane supports epithelial cells by anchoring them to the underlying connective tissue.
Let me break it down simply:
1. Why does plasma leak into the interstitial space?
• Your blood vessels (capillaries) have tiny gaps that allow water, nutrients, and oxygen to pass through to nourish your tissues.
• This is normal and necessary for your cells to survive.
2. Why doesn’t all the fluid return to the blood?
• Most of the fluid that leaks out returns to the capillaries because of osmotic pressure (a force pulling fluid back in).
• However, about 10% of the fluid stays behind and needs to be removed.
3. Does the lymphatic system still have work to do if everything is normal?
• Yes! The lymphatic system acts like a drainage system that picks up the extra fluid and any waste left in the tissues.
• Without the lymphatic system, this extra fluid would build up and cause swelling (edema).
So, even when everything is working fine, the lymphatic system is always draining excess fluid to prevent swelling.
Explain the different pathways of blood circulation
Why is the portal system important?
Which arteries have valves?
- Simplest pathway (1 capillary bed): the heart to arteries to artérioles to capillary bed to venules to veins to heart.
2.portal system (2 capillary beds): the first cap bed in the organ has veins rjay go to the 2nd cap bed in another organ before the veins from this second organ now goes to the vena cava. Example 1: gut and liver- the veins from the gut form hepatic portal vein and enter the liver cap bed
Example 2:hypothalamus and anterior lobe of pituitary gland. A portal vein is between these 2.
The portal system is important because nutrients form the gut must be sorted by the liver before they enter the main blood circulation.
Also form our example, Hypothalamus release some hormones to the anterior lobe directly cuz it’s only for the anterior lobe not the main circulation.
- Artery joins to vein without a capillary(arteriovenous shunt or anastomosis). So in this one, not all the nutrients will be used by the first organ.
Connections between the arteries and veins won’t always be connected by capillary in an organ. So not all arteries will have capillary beds so blood isn’t always 100% deoxygenated
4.Venous anastomosis
5.Arterial anastomosis
Perfect! You’re clearly getting the concepts well. Let’s organize and polish your notes a little for clarity and easy revision:
- Portal System (Two Capillary Beds)
A portal system is when blood passes through two capillary beds before reaching the heart.
• The first capillary bed is in one organ → then blood flows through a portal vein → then enters the second capillary bed in another organ → then finally returns to the heart via a vein (e.g., vena cava).
Examples:
• Gut → Liver:
• Blood from the gut capillaries collects into veins → forms the hepatic portal vein → enters liver capillaries → then goes to the inferior vena cava.
• Why important? Liver filters nutrients, toxins, drugs before they enter general circulation.
• Hypothalamus → Anterior Pituitary:
• Hormones from the hypothalamus go through hypophyseal portal veins to act directly on the anterior pituitary.
• Why important? These hormones are meant only for the anterior pituitary, not the whole body circulation.
- Arteriovenous Shunt / Arteriovenous Anastomosis
• Definition: An artery connects directly to a vein without a capillary bed in between.
• Effect: Blood skips capillary exchange, so not all oxygen/nutrients are used by tissues.
• Importance: It helps in thermoregulation and adjusting blood flow quickly in certain areas (e.g., skin, fingers, ears). - Venous Anastomosis
• Definition: Two or more veins are connected, providing an alternate route for blood to return to the heart.
• Importance: Common and useful in case of blockage in one vein; blood can still flow through another path. - Arterial Anastomosis
• Definition: Two or more arteries are connected, allowing blood to reach an organ through different routes.
• Importance: Provides collateral circulation — so if one artery is blocked, the organ still gets blood from another route.
• Example: Around joints (like knee or shoulder), coronary arteries in the heart.
Simple Summary Lines:
• Portal system = 2 capillary beds with a portal vein between.
• Arteriovenous shunt = artery to vein directly, no capillary.
• Venous anastomosis = veins joining each other.
• Arterial anastomosis = arteries joining each other.
Want me to turn this into a small table or flashcard-style format to help you revise quickly?
Thanks for letting me know! Let me explain 2, 3, and 4 in a very simple and clear way.
- Arteriovenous Shunt (also called Arteriovenous Anastomosis)
• Normally, blood flows like this: artery → capillary → vein.
• But in a shunt, artery connects directly to vein, skipping the capillary.
Why is that important?
• No exchange of oxygen and nutrients happens (because it skipped the capillary).
• It is useful in places like fingers, toes, ears, where the body can control blood flow to keep heat or save energy.
Example:
• In cold weather, blood may skip the capillaries in your fingers through a shunt, so you don’t lose heat.
- Venous Anastomosis
• It means two veins are connected to each other.
• So if one vein is blocked, blood can still return to the heart using the other vein.
• This happens in many places in the body.
Example:
• In the hand or foot, many veins are connected. So even if one vein is blocked or damaged, blood can still flow through the others.
- Arterial Anastomosis
• It means two arteries are connected to each other.
• It gives another way for blood to reach an organ.
• So if one artery is blocked, the organ still gets blood from another artery.
Example:
• In the heart, small arteries join together to make sure the heart still gets blood if one path is blocked.
• Around joints (like knee or elbow), arteries connect to help during movement.
In simple terms:
• Arteriovenous shunt: artery goes straight to vein (skips capillary).
• Venous anastomosis: vein joins another vein.
• Arterial anastomosis: artery joins another artery.
Summary in easy words:
• Pulmonary vein: No valve, carries oxygen-rich blood to the heart.
• Pulmonary artery: Has a pulmonary valve to stop blood from flowing back into the heart.
• Aorta: Has an aortic valve to stop blood from flowing back into the heart.
Why is the lymphatic system important
How does it work?
How many lymphatic ducts are in the body? State then
The lymphatic system uses vessels to recover lost fluids. The lymphatic system helps to recover lost fluid from tissues.
(the fluid is the one out of circulation. That’s called lymph)
So it starts with the lymphatic capillaries. These capillaries are blind ended or aren’t continuous. There are gaps in between endothelial cells.
So it starts from lymphatic capillaries to collecting vessels to lymphatic trunks to lymphatic ducts.
The lymph nodes serve as filtration point cuz lymph may contain bad things so they screen the lymph. Lymph nodes are along the collecting vessels.
Collecting vessels: Carry lymph from capillaries and pass through lymph nodes.
• Lymph nodes:
• Filter the lymph (remove harmful substances like bacteria, viruses, etc.)
• Located along collecting vessels.
There are two lymphatic ducts-thoracic duct (left lymphatic duct) and right lymphatic duct
Where does the right lymphatic duct drain lymph from?
Where does it drain into?
Where does the left lymphatic duct drain lymph from?
Where does it drain into?
Look at the drawing on the board picture if you don’t understand anything
Why are lymphatic capillaries blind-ended?
Right lymphatic duct
• Drains lymph from: Right side of the head, right chest, right upper limb via the right jugular trunk
• Drains into: Right subclavian vein
Thoracic duct
• Drains lymph from: Left side of body, both legs, abdomen, left chest and arm
• Drains into: Left subclavian vein
The Two Main Lymphatic Ducts:
• Right Lymphatic Duct:
• Drains right head & neck, right upper limb, right thorax
• Formed by:
• Right Jugular Trunk (from right head & neck)
• Right Subclavian Trunk (from right upper limb & chest)
• Sometimes also Right Bronchomediastinal Trunk (from thorax)
• Empties into the right venous angle (junction of Right Internal Jugular Vein and Right Subclavian Vein)
• Thoracic Duct (Left Lymphatic Duct):
• Drains entire left side of the body + both lower limbs + abdomen
• Formed by:
• Left Jugular Trunk
• Left Subclavian Trunk
• Left Bronchomediastinal Trunk
• Lumbar trunks and intestinal trunk (from abdomen and legs)
• Empties into the left venous angle (junction of Left Internal Jugular Vein and Left Subclavian Vein)
- What Happens After Lymph Enters the Venous Angle?
• Lymph is now part of the blood.
• From the Right/Left Venous Angle, blood (now containing lymph) flows into larger veins that carry it to the heart. - How are the Larger Veins Formed?
• On each side of the body:
• Right Internal Jugular Vein (RJV): drains blood from right head & neck
• Right Subclavian Vein (RSV): drains blood from right upper limb & chest
• These two veins join to form the Right Brachiocephalic Vein (RBV)
• Left Internal Jugular Vein (LJV): drains left head & neck
• Left Subclavian Vein (LSV): drains left upper limb & chest
• These two veins join to form the Left Brachiocephalic Vein (LBV) - Final Drainage Pathway to the Heart:
• Right Brachiocephalic Vein + Left Brachiocephalic Vein → Superior Vena Cava
• Superior Vena Cava → Right Atrium of the Heart
So yes — blood from veins and lymph (now mixed in) both end up in the Superior Vena Cava, and then go to the heart.
Absolutely! Here’s the Quick Summary Flow (with all names written in full) for both right and left sides:
Quick Summary Flow – Right Side:
• Right Jugular Trunk + Right Subclavian Trunk → Right Lymphatic Duct → Right Venous Angle (junction of Right Internal Jugular Vein and Right Subclavian Vein)
• Right Internal Jugular Vein + Right Subclavian Vein → Right Brachiocephalic Vein → Superior Vena Cava → Right Atrium of the Heart
Quick Summary Flow – Left Side:
• Left Jugular Trunk + Left Subclavian Trunk + Other Trunks → Thoracic Duct → Left Venous Angle (junction of Left Internal Jugular Vein and Left Subclavian Vein)
• Left Internal Jugular Vein + Left Subclavian Vein → Left Brachiocephalic Vein → Superior Vena Cava → Right Atrium of the Heart
Let me know if you want a visual description or audio-style flow to memorize it even faster.
They are blind-ended (meaning they are closed at one end) because:
1. They are entry points for fluid —
• Their job is to collect excess tissue fluid (lymph) from the spaces between cells (interstitial space).
• If they were open-ended at both sides like blood vessels, the fluid would just pass through and not be collected.
2. One-way flow system —
• The lymphatic system is designed to drain fluid in one direction only — back toward the heart.
• The blind end helps start this one-way flow from tissues toward the larger lymphatic vessels.
3. Efficient uptake of fluid and particles —
• The loose overlapping cells at the blind end act like one-way flaps/valves, allowing fluid, proteins, and even large particles like bacteria to enter, but not leave.
In short:
Lymphatic capillaries are blind-ended so they can collect fluid efficiently and allow one-way flow toward the heart.
State two causes of edema
- Some parasites live in lymphatic system somewhere and block transmission of lymph Node leading to edema and is usually at the extreme
- Low concentration of plasma proteins or lack of some proteins
Great question!
Actually, high concentration of plasma proteins does NOT cause edema — it usually prevents it.
Let’s break it down simply:
• Plasma proteins (especially albumin) help to pull fluid back into blood vessels.
This pulling force is called oncotic pressure or colloid osmotic pressure.
• So, when plasma proteins are high, they keep fluid inside the blood vessels — this prevents edema.
Now, what really causes edema?
1. Low plasma proteins → Low oncotic pressure → Fluid leaves blood vessels and stays in tissues → Edema
(e.g., in malnutrition, liver disease, kidney disease)
2. High hydrostatic pressure → Fluid pushed out of vessels
(e.g., heart failure)
3. Increased capillary permeability → Proteins and fluid leak out
(e.g., in inflammation or injury)
4. Lymphatic blockage → Lymph can’t return to circulation → Fluid accumulates in tissues
(e.g., in elephantiasis or after lymph node removal)
Summary:
High plasma protein → prevents edema Low plasma protein → causes edema
Why is lymph drained into veins not Arteries
Ah, that note is partially right, but let me clarify it better for you:
Clarified Summary:
Lymph drains into veins (not arteries) because veins carry blood back to the heart, where it can be reoxygenated in the lungs before being pumped out to tissues.
So if lymph entered arteries directly, it would bypass this reoxygenation step and mix with oxygen-rich blood going to tissues—which is not ideal.
Simple summary (combine both ideas):
Lymph drains into veins because veins are low pressure and lead to the heart, where blood is reoxygenated before being sent to tissues.
Would you like a short analogy to help remember it?
Differences between arteries veins capillaries and lymphatic vessels
Perfect—here’s a clear list without a table, in a way you can easily paste and remember:
Arteries:
• Carry blood away from the heart (usually oxygenated, except pulmonary artery).
• Have thick muscular walls to handle high pressure.
• No valves (except at the heart’s exit).
• Blood flows in pulses (pressure is high).
• Found deep in the body.
Veins:
• Carry blood toward the heart (usually deoxygenated, except pulmonary vein).
• Have thinner walls and wider lumens.
• Have valves to prevent backflow (especially in limbs).
• Blood flow is slow and under low pressure.
• Can be found superficially or deep.
Capillaries:
• Connect arteries and veins.
• Very thin walls (one cell thick) for easy exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste.
• Smallest blood vessels, form networks in tissues.
• Allow diffusion between blood and cells.
• No valves.
Lymphatic Vessels:
• Carry lymph (tissue fluid), not blood.
• Start as blind-ended capillaries.
• Have valves to prevent backflow.
• Walls are thin, similar to veins.
• Flow is slow and one-way, toward the heart.
• Pass through lymph nodes for filtration.
Want a short summary sentence to help you recall all four at once?
Veins and lymphatic vessels both:
• Have valves.
• Carry low-pressure fluid.
• Rely on muscle movement and body movement to push the fluid forward.
Absolutely! Let’s add more “flesh” to your summary—still keeping it simple and easy to remember, but richer in detail so your understanding is deeper.
Detailed Summary (with added explanation):
• Veins and Lymphatic Vessels have valves to prevent backflow of fluid since both carry low-pressure fluid.
• Lymphatic vessels have even more valves than veins because lymph moves even more slowly and needs extra help to flow in one direction toward the heart.
• These valves are especially important in the limbs, where gravity opposes upward flow.
• Arteries and Capillaries do not have valves because blood in arteries is under high pressure and flows in one direction due to heart contractions. Capillaries, being very tiny and slow-flowing, don’t need valves either.
• Arteries have thicker, more muscular walls than veins because they carry blood under high pressure from the heart to the rest of the body. Their walls have:
• A thick smooth muscle layer for contraction and control of blood flow.
• Elastic fibers to handle pressure changes.
• Veins have thinner walls but a wider lumen (diameter) compared to corresponding arteries.
• This makes it easier for blood to return to the heart slowly.
• The thin walls are okay since veins operate under low pressure.
• Capillaries and Lymphatic Capillaries have walls made of a single layer of endothelial cells, which allows:
• Capillaries to exchange oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste between blood and tissues.
• Lymphatic capillaries to collect excess fluid, proteins, and even cells from tissues easily.
Bonus Addition (Key Point to Remember):
• Capillaries are where exchange happens, not arteries or veins.
• Lymphatic vessels are drainage pathways, not blood carriers—they collect and return extra fluid back to blood circulation.
• Veins and lymphatics rely on valves and muscle movements, while arteries rely on the heart’s pressure.
Would you like a short analogy or phrase to sum it up even more simply for memory?
Endoneurium = thin connective tissue around individual axons inside a peripheral nerve.
State the four main types of bones and give one example for each
Long-longer than their width. Has a proximal end,shaft(diaphysis) and distal end. Example is metacarpals and metatarsals,humerus,femur
Flat- thin,flat and often curved. Eg.Ribs,skull or breast bone (sternum)
Irregular-vertebrae and sacrum and pelvic bone
Short- length is almost the same as the width.it is cube like. Eg carpals and tarsals
Tissue processing
Harvest organ first using fixative (4%formalin) this is light fixing
Dehydration at 10%
12-14 hours of fixing
Embedding is just to give it shape or make it easier to work with. It’s done with a mould and a cassette. Color of cassette can determine the type of organ tissue you’re working with
Microtome: two wheels.
Water bath is included in microtomy and some ribbon thing. Temp required by wax manufacturer(56 degrees Celsius.54-55 too)
Water mustn’t be too hot
You dry it to make the tissue adhere to glass and do away with excess wax
Staining - H and E and crystal violet stains are done there ;
Absolute something something is decreasing cuz you’re trying to increase water.
Xylene will do away with the wax(clearing)
Absolute is the alcohol and this clears excess xylene so you can infuse with water. Alcohol will do away with excess xylene.
Hydrate cell
Hydrate,stain,washing to remove excess stain Dehydrate,
Infiltration is putting tissue in molten wax or paraffination which is part of the processing stage.
This is different from embedding which is to give it shape. There’s orientation at embedding. The orientation of your tissue will determine your sectioning.
I heard processing is different from embedding and different from microtome and staining where xylene is introduced again with dehydration and hydration finally
- Tissue Collection & Fixation
• Fixative used: 4% formalin (light fixing)
• Purpose: Preserves tissue structure, prevents autolysis & bacterial decay.
• Time: Typically 12–24 hours, depending on tissue size.
• Goal: Crosslink proteins and maintain tissue morphology. - Dehydration (Processing stage begins here)
• Gradually replace water with increasing concentrations of alcohol (ethanol):
• 70% → 80% → 90% → 95% → 100% (absolute alcohol).
• Purpose: Remove all water from the tissue before wax infiltration. - Clearing
• Alcohol is not miscible with wax, so we need a clearing agent like xylene to replace alcohol.
• Xylene is miscible with both alcohol and paraffin wax.
• Xylene removes the alcohol and prepares tissue for wax infiltration. - Infiltration (Still part of processing)
• Tissue is immersed in molten paraffin wax, which replaces the xylene.
• Purpose: Wax infiltrates tissue spaces to give firmness for sectioning. - Embedding (Separate stage from processing)
• Now, tissue is oriented and placed in a mould filled with molten wax.
• It solidifies into a block (cassette) to allow easy sectioning.
• Orientation matters (e.g., epithelium facing up).
• Cassette color coding can sometimes indicate organ type or priority in labs. - Sectioning (Microtomy)
• A microtome with two wheels is used to cut thin slices (usually 4–5 µm).
• Slices form a “ribbon” of sections.
• Water bath (~56°C) is used to float ribbons, remove wrinkles, and transfer to slides.
• Not too hot — too much heat damages tissue. - Drying
• Slides are dried in an oven to remove moisture and help tissue adhere to slides.
• Also removes excess wax. - Staining
• Hematoxylin & Eosin (H&E) is most common:
• Hematoxylin stains nuclei blue
• Eosin stains cytoplasm pink
• Sometimes Crystal violet or special stains are used.
• Sequence:- De-waxing (xylene again)
- Dehydration → Rehydration → Staining → Washing → Dehydration again
- Mounting
• Alcohol removes excess xylene before hydration and staining.
• Then re-dehydrated and cleared before cover-slipping.
Final Recap:
Stage Key Processes
Fixation Formalin preserves tissue
Processing Dehydration → Clearing → Infiltration
Embedding Orientation + Wax block formation
Microtomy Sectioning into ribbons
Water Bath Unwrinkle, float sections
Drying Stick tissue to slide
Staining H&E + special stains
Would you like a diagram summary or printable note version for this?
Sure! Here are the MCQs again with only the possible answers, no answers indicated yet:
- What is the correct plural form of axilla?
A. Axillas
B. Axillae
C. Axillata
D. Axilli - The correct plural of thorax is:
A. Thoraxes
B. Thoraxae
C. Thoraces
D. Thoraxi - What is the plural form of lumen?
A. Lumens
B. Lumina
C. Lumenae
D. Lumenes - Which of the following is the plural form of cortex?
A. Cortices
B. Cortexes
C. Cortexae
D. Corti - What is the correct plural of diagnosis?
A. Diagnosises
B. Diagnosae
C. Diagnoses
D. Diagnosa - Epididymides is the plural of:
A. Epididymis
B. Epididymus
C. Epididymum
D. Epididymi - What is the correct plural form of appendix?
A. Appendixes
B. Appendici
C. Appendices
D. Appendexes - The correct plural of carcinoma is:
A. Carcinomas
B. Carcinomata
C. Carcinomae
D. Carcinomi - What is the plural form of ganglion?
A. Gangli
B. Ganglions
C. Ganglia
D. Ganglina - Septa is the plural of:
A. Septae
B. Septa
C. Septum
D. Septi - The correct plural of viscus is:
A. Viscuses
B. Viscera
C. Viscusae
D. Visci - What is the plural form of villus?
A. Villuses
B. Villi
C. Villum
D. Villora - Corpora is the plural of:
A. Corpus
B. Corpse
C. Corporae
D. Corporum - What is the correct plural form of phalanx?
A. Phalanxes
B. Phalanxi
C. Phalangi
D. Phalanges - The plural of ovary is:
A. Ovaries
B. Ovareae
C. Ovaria
D. Ovaryae - What is the plural form of calyx?
A. Calyces
B. Calyxes
C. Calyxi
D. Calyxa
Let me know when you’re ready for the answers or explanations.
Here are MCQs formed from each of the singular-plural patterns you shared:
- What is the correct plural form of the word axilla?
A. Axillas
B. Axillae
C. Axillata
D. AxilliAnswer: B. Axillae - The correct plural of thorax is:
A. Thoraxes
B. Thoraxae
C. Thoraces
D. ThoraxiAnswer: C. Thoraces - What is the plural form of lumen?
A. Lumens
B. Lumina
C. Lumenae
D. LumenesAnswer: B. Lumina - Which of the following is the plural form of cortex?
A. Cortices
B. Cortexes
C. Cortexae
D. CortiAnswer: A. Cortices - What is the correct plural of diagnosis?
A. Diagnosises
B. Diagnosae
C. Diagnoses
D. DiagnosaAnswer: C. Diagnoses - Epididymides is the plural of:
A. Epididymis
B. Epididymus
C. Epididymum
D. EpididymiAnswer: A. Epididymis - What is the correct plural form of appendix?
A. Appendixes
B. Appendici
C. Appendices
D. AppendexesAnswer: C. Appendices - The correct plural of carcinoma is:
A. Carcinomas
B. Carcinomata
C. Carcinomae
D. CarcinomiAnswer: B. Carcinomata - What is the plural form of ganglion?
A. Gangli
B. Ganglions
C. Ganglia
D. GanglinaAnswer: C. Ganglia - Septa is the plural of:
A. Septae
B. Septa
C. Septum
D. SeptiAnswer: C. Septum - The correct plural of viscus is:
A. Viscuses
B. Viscera
C. Viscusae
D. VisciAnswer: B. Viscera - What is the plural form of villus?
A. Villuses
B. Villi
C. Villum
D. VilloraAnswer: B. Villi - Corpora is the plural of:
A. Corpus
B. Corpse
C. Corporae
D. CorporumAnswer: A. Corpus - What is the correct plural form of phalanx?
A. Phalanxes
B. Phalanxi
C. Phalangi
D. PhalangesAnswer: D. Phalanges - The plural of ovary is:
A. Ovaries
B. Ovareae
C. Ovaria
D. OvaryaeAnswer: A. Ovaries - What is the plural form of calyx?
A. Calyces
B. Calyxes
C. Calyxi
D. CalyxaAnswer: A. Calyces
Would you like these in a printable quiz format or in flashcard style for Brainscape or Anki?
What is the structure of flat bones and long bones
What’s the difference between epipyohyseal growth plate and epiphyseal line
Here’s a simplified summary based on your notes:
Structure of Flat Bones:
• Two compact bone layers (outer and inner).
• Spongy bone (diploë) lies between the two compact layers.
• Periosteum covers the outer compact bone.
• The spongy bone contains red bone marrow (important for blood cell formation).
Structure of Long Bones:
• Epiphysis: The rounded ends of the bone; contains red bone marrow and covered with articular cartilage.
• Metaphysis: The area between the epiphysis and diaphysis; contains the epiphyseal plate (or line)—the growth area.
• Diaphysis: The shaft of the bone; made up of compact bone and contains the medullary cavity (holds yellow bone marrow for fat storage).
Yes, absolutely correct!
• Both the proximal and distal epiphyses of a long bone are typically covered by articular cartilage (usually hyaline cartilage).
• This articular cartilage is what covers the joint surfaces, helping to reduce friction and absorb shock during movement.
So:
• Articular cartilage = covers epiphyses (both ends) of long bones where they form joints with adjacent bones.
• It is not found on the entire epiphysis, only on the articulating surfaces.
So from:
Proximal Epiphysis
↓ (contains red bone marrow + articular cartilage at joint surface)
Metaphysis
↓ (area between epiphysis and diaphysis; contains growth plate/line)
Epiphyseal Plate (in growing bones) → becomes Epiphyseal Line (in adults)
↓
Diaphysis
↓ (shaft of the bone; contains compact bone and medullary cavity with yellow bone marrow)
Metaphysis
↓
And ends at Distal Epiphysis
↓ (which contains red bone marrow + articular cartilage at joint surface)
Additional Notes on Flat Bones:
• Examples: Skull bones (frontal, parietal), sternum, ribs, scapula.
• The spongy bone (diploë) not only contains red marrow but also helps absorb impact and reduce the weight of the bone.
• The periosteum is rich in nerves and blood vessels, aiding in bone repair and nourishment.
Additional Notes on Long Bones:
• Compact bone in the diaphysis is arranged in osteons (Haversian systems), which enhance strength.
• Medullary cavity in adults contains yellow marrow (mostly fat), but in children, it often contains red marrow.
• The epiphyseal plate (in children) is a cartilaginous area where longitudinal bone growth occurs; it turns into the epiphyseal line in adults after growth ends.
• Nutrient foramina are small holes in the shaft that allow blood vessels to enter and supply the bone.
Simply put: The epiphyseal plate grows the bone.
• The epiphyseal line shows where the growth happened
Ah, I get you now! Let me bring back all the points in full from the earlier detailed explanation (but in bullet form this time, just as you asked):
Differences Between Epiphyseal Plate and Epiphyseal Line:
• Epiphyseal Plate:
• Also called the growth plate.
• Made of hyaline cartilage.
• Present in children and adolescents.
• Located between the epiphysis and metaphysis.
• Site of active cell division—chondrocytes multiply and ossify to lengthen the bone.
• Plays a major role in longitudinal bone growth during development.
• Appears as a radiolucent (dark) area on X-rays.
• Gradually replaced by bone as the individual reaches maturity.
• Epiphyseal Line:
• Seen in adults, after bone growth stops.
• It’s a bony remnant of the original epiphyseal plate or the cartilage that was there
• Marks the location where the growth plate used to be.
• There is no further growth in length at this stage.
• Appears as a radiopaque (light) line on X-rays.
• Indicates completion of ossification and skeletal maturity.
- Which term describes a rounded knob that articulates with another bone?
A. Condyle
B. Fossa
C. Spine
D. Tubercle- What is a smooth, flat, slightly concave or convex articular surface called?
A. Epicondyle
B. Facet
C. Line
D. Canal - What is the prominent expanded end of a bone, sometimes rounded?
A. Tuberosity
B. Process
C. Head
D. Fovea - A narrow ridge like that of the iliac crest is called a:
A. Line
B. Crest
C. Sulcus
D. Alveolus - An expanded region superior to a condyle is called a:
A. Epicondyle
B. Tuberosity
C. Trochanter
D. Tubercle - What is a slightly raised, elongated ridge?
A. Line
B. Spine
C. Crest
D. Facet - Any bony prominence is referred to as a:
A. Process
B. Spine
C. Fossa
D. Trochanter - A bony outgrowth or protruding part is called a:
A. Protuberance
B. Line
C. Tubercle
D. Meatus - What is a sharp, slender, or narrow process?
A. Tuberosity
B. Spine
C. Crest
D. Head - The two massive processes unique to the femur are called:
A. Trochanters
B. Tubercles
C. Condyles
D. Facets - What is a small, rounded process called?
A. Tuberosity
B. Tubercle
C. Head
D. Protuberance - A rough, elevated surface like that on the tibia is called a:
A. Spine
B. Tuberosity
C. Line
D. Fovea - A pit or socket, such as a tooth socket, is called:
A. Alveolus
B. Foramen
C. Canal
D. Sulcus - A shallow, broad or elongated basin is a:
A. Fossa
B. Fovea
C. Sinus
D. Meatus - A small pit like that on the head of the femur is a:
A. Fovea
B. Canal
C. Tubercle
D. Alveolus - A groove for a tendon, nerve, or blood vessel is called a:
A. Sulcus
B. Sinus
C. Spine
D. Epicondyle
- What is a smooth, flat, slightly concave or convex articular surface called?
- What is a condyle?
Answer: B. A rounded knob that articulates with another bone
• Explanation: A condyle is a smooth, rounded articular surface that connects with another bone, e.g., occipital condyles.
• A (narrow ridge) = crest,
• C (sharp process) = spine,
• D (shallow depression) = fossa. - A smooth, flat, slightly concave or convex articular surface is called a:
Answer: A. Facet
• Explanation: Facets are small flat surfaces found in joints like vertebrae.
• B = head (a rounded end),
• C = line (raised ridge),
• D = sulcus (a groove). - The prominent expanded end of a bone, sometimes rounded, is called a:
Answer: B. Head
• Explanation: The head is an enlarged rounded end of a bone that articulates with another, e.g., head of the femur.
• A = facet,
• C = spine,
• D = tuberosity. - Which of the following is an example of a projection or extension?
Answer: C. Crest
• Explanation: A crest is a narrow ridge like the iliac crest.
• A = foramen (opening),
• B = sinus (cavity),
• D = alveolus (socket). - The slightly raised, elongated ridge on a bone is called a:
Answer: A. Line
• Explanation: A line is an elongated elevation like the nuchal line.
• B = fossa (depression),
• C = canal (tunnel),
• D = head (articular end). - An expanded region superior to a condyle is known as a:
Answer: C. Epicondyle
• Explanation: Epicondyles are projections above a condyle, e.g., medial epicondyle of femur.
• A = condyle itself,
• B = tubercle,
• D = spine. - A sharp, slender, or narrow projection is referred to as a:
Answer: B. Spine
• Explanation: Examples are the mental spines of the mandible.
• A = fovea (pit),
• C = tubercle (rounded projection),
• D = head (rounded articular end). - Any bony prominence is termed a:
Answer: C. Process
• Explanation: General term for a projection, e.g., mastoid process.
• A = crest,
• B = epicondyle,
• D = sulcus. - A bony outgrowth or protruding part is called a:
Answer: A. Protuberance
• Explanation: Mental protuberance is an example on the chin.
• B = tubercle,
• C = fovea,
• D = facet. - A rough elevated surface on a bone is termed a:
Answer: D. Tuberosity
• Explanation: Example is tibial tuberosity.
• A = canal,
• B = facet,
• C = crest. - The small, rounded projection on a bone is known as a:
Answer: A. Tubercle
• Explanation: Found on bones like the humerus (greater tubercle).
• B = process,
• C = line,
• D = spine. - Two large processes unique to the femur are called:
Answer: C. Trochanters
• Explanation: Greater and lesser trochanters are specific to the femur.
• A = condyles,
• B = epicondyles,
• D = tuberosities. - A pit or socket such as a tooth socket is termed:
Answer: B. Alveolus
• Explanation: Found in maxilla or mandible.
• A = fovea,
• C = sinus,
• D = fossa. - A shallow, broad or elongated basin is called a:
Answer: D. Fossa
• Explanation: E.g., mandibular fossa.
• A = foramen,
• B = sulcus,
• C = canal. - A small pit on a bone is called a:
Answer: C. Fovea
• Explanation: Example: fovea capitis on femur.
• A = alveolus,
• B = canal,
• D = sinus. - A groove for tendon, nerve, or blood vessel is a:
Answer: B. Sulcus
• Explanation: E.g., intertubercular sulcus.
• A = fossa,
• C = line,
• D = canal.
- A tubular passage or tunnel in a bone is called a:
A. Canal
B. Meatus
C. Foramen
D. Sinus- A slit through a bone is known as a:
A. Fissure
B. Foramen
C. Tuberosity
D. Alveolus - A hole through a bone, usually round, is called a:
A. Foramen
B. Sinus
C. Canal
D. Trochanter - An opening into a canal is referred to as a:
A. Meatus
B. Sulcus
C. Fissure
D. Protuberance - An air-filled space in a bone is called a:
A. Sinus
B. Fovea
C. Foramen
D. Canal - The term “condyle” belongs to which classification?
A. Articulation
B. Projection
C. Depression
D. Passage - “Crest” falls under which category of surface markings?
A. Articulation
B. Depression
C. Projection/Extension
D. Passage - What classification does “fossa” belong to?
A. Passage
B. Depression
C. Projection
D. Articulation - “Canal” is a type of:
A. Articulation
B. Projection
C. Depression
D. Passage/Cavity - Which classification best fits “epicondyle”?
A. Articulation
B. Projection
C. Depression
D. Passage - The term “foramen” is categorized under:
A. Depression
B. Articulation
C. Projection
D. Passage - The term “tuberosity” is classified as a:
A. Projection
B. Depression
C. Articulation
D. Passage - “Head” in anatomy belongs to which classification?
A. Articulation
B. Depression
C. Projection
D. Passage - The term “meatus” refers to a type of:
A. Depression
B. Passage/Cavity
C. Projection
D. Articulation
- A slit through a bone is known as a:
- A tubular tunnel in a bone is called a:
Answer: C. Canal
• Explanation: E.g., auditory canal.
• A = sinus,
• B = fissure,
• D = sulcus. - A slit through a bone is called a:
Answer: A. Fissure
• Explanation: E.g., orbital fissures.
• B = canal,
• C = line,
• D = fossa. - A round hole in a bone is called a:
Answer: B. Foramen
• Explanation: E.g., foramen magnum.
• A = fossa,
• C = canal,
• D = sulcus. - An opening into a canal is called a:
Answer: D. Meatus
• Explanation: E.g., external acoustic meatus.
• A = sinus,
• B = foramen,
• C = canal. - An air-filled space in a bone is a:
Answer: A. Sinus
• Explanation: E.g., frontal sinus.
• B = alveolus,
• C = foramen,
• D = meatus. - Which of these is a type of articular surface?
Answer: C. Facet
• Explanation: Smooth surface for articulation.
• A = tubercle (projection),
• B = canal (passage),
• D = spine (projection). - Which of the following is a depression on bone?
Answer: B. Fossa
• Explanation: A shallow hollow on bone.
• A = epicondyle,
• C = crest,
• D = tubercle. - Which of these is classified as a passage or cavity?
Answer: D. Meatus
• Explanation: A bony canal opening.
• A = head,
• B = process,
• C = trochanter. - What structure allows passage of nerves or blood vessels and is a slit-like opening?
Answer: A. Fissure
• Explanation: Slits allow transmission of neurovascular structures.
• B = foramen (hole),
• C = sulcus (groove),
• D = fossa. - Which of these is a projection involved in muscle attachment?
Answer: C. Tuberosity
• Explanation: Tuberosities serve as muscle insertion sites.
• A = sinus,
• B = alveolus,
• D = canal. - Which surface marking is often found near joints and helps with ligament attachment?
Answer: B. Epicondyle
• Explanation: Ligament and muscle attachment near condyles.
• A = fovea,
• C = alveolus,
• D = fossa. - Which of the following is NOT a projection or process?
Answer: D. Sinus
• Explanation: Sinus is a cavity, not a projection.
• A = spine,
• B = tubercle,
• C = protuberance. - Which is the general term for any raised bony extension?
Answer: A. Process
• Explanation: Broad term for projections.
• B = foramen (hole),
• C = canal (passage),
• D = sinus (cavity). - The greater trochanter of the femur is an example of which of the following?
Answer: C. A large projection unique to the femur
• Explanation: Trochanters are unique and massive processes.
• A = articulation,
• B = passage,
• D = depression.
- A rounded knob that articulates with another bone is called a:
A. Tubercle
B. Condyle
C. Trochanter
D. Spine - A smooth, flat articular surface, slightly concave or convex, is called a:
A. Head
B. Crest
C. Facet
D. Fovea - A prominent expanded end of a bone is called a:
A. Condyle
B. Head
C. Fossa
D. Process - A narrow ridge on a bone is referred to as a:
A. Crest
B. Line
C. Spine
D. Sulcus - A slightly raised, elongated ridge is known as:
A. Tuberosity
B. Crest
C. Line
D. Trochanter - An expanded region superior to a condyle is called a:
A. Head
B. Protuberance
C. Epicondyle
D. Fossa - A sharp, slender or narrow projection from a bone is called:
A. Spine
B. Line
C. Process
D. Tubercle - Any bony prominence is referred to as a:
A. Process
B. Tuberosity
C. Fovea
D. Meatus - A bony outgrowth or protruding part is called:
A. Protuberance
B. Process
C. Tubercle
D. Epicondyle - Two massive processes unique to the femur are called:
A. Tuberosities
B. Tubercles
C. Trochanters
D. Condyles - A small rounded projection on a bone is referred to as:
A. Spine
B. Tuberosity
C. Tubercle
D. Line - A rough, elevated surface on a bone is known as:
A. Tuberosity
B. Trochanter
C. Crest
D. Canal - A shallow, broad, or elongated basin in a bone is called a:
A. Sinus
B. Alveolus
C. Fossa
D. Fissure - A pit or socket, like a tooth socket, is called an:
A. Alveolus
B. Fovea
C. Sulcus
D. Meatus - A small pit or depression, like that on the head of femur, is called:
A. Sinus
B. Fovea
C. Foramen
D. Fossa - A groove for a tendon, nerve, or vessel is called:
A. Fossa
B. Sulcus
C. Canal
D. Tuberosity - A slit-like opening or passage in a bone is called a:
A. Foramen
B. Fissure
C. Meatus
D. Alveolus - A hole or round opening in a bone is called a:
A. Sinus
B. Canal
C. Foramen
D. Tubercle - A tubular passage or tunnel through a bone is called:
A. Foramen
B. Canal
C. Sulcus
D. Fissure - A hollow, air-filled space in a bone is called a:
A. Meatus
B. Sinus
C. Alveolus
D. Fossa - An opening into a canal, such as the ear canal, is called a:
A. Meatus
B. Fissure
C. Foramen
D. Sinus - Which of the following is a depression found in bones?
A. Process
B. Fossa
C. Crest
D. Epicondyle - Which of the following terms describes a passage or cavity in a bone?
A. Tuberosity
B. Alveolus
C. Meatus
D. Spine - Which of the following is a surface marking found only on the femur?
A. Trochanter
B. Tubercle
C. Crest
D. Process - Which of the following is classified as an articulation?
A. Facet
B. Tubercle
C. Spine
D. Sulcus
Perfect! Here are the correct answers with explanations for the MCQs on bone surface markings and their classifications.
MCQs + Correct Answers + Explanations
- A rounded knob that articulates with another bone is called a:
→ B. Condyle
• Explanation: A condyle is a smooth, rounded articular projection.
• Other options:
• A. Tubercle → projection
• C. Trochanter → projection
• D. Spine → sharp projection - A smooth, flat articular surface, slightly concave or convex, is called a:
→ C. Facet
• Explanation: Facets are flat surfaces where two bones articulate (e.g., vertebrae).
• Other options:
• A. Head → rounded articular surface
• B. Crest → projection
• D. Fovea → depression - A prominent expanded end of a bone is called a:
→ B. Head
• Explanation: Heads are typically rounded ends of bones involved in joints (e.g., head of femur).
• Other options:
• A. Condyle → smaller articulation
• C. Fossa → depression
• D. Process → general projection - A narrow ridge on a bone is referred to as a:
→ A. Crest
• Explanation: A crest is a raised, narrow ridge of bone for muscle attachment.
• Other options:
• B. Line → smaller ridge
• C. Spine → sharper projection
• D. Sulcus → depression - A slightly raised, elongated ridge is known as:
→ C. Line
• Explanation: A line is a less prominent ridge than a crest.
• Other options:
• A. Tuberosity → projection
• B. Crest → higher ridge
• D. Trochanter → large projection - An expanded region superior to a condyle is called a:
→ C. Epicondyle
• Explanation: Epicondyles are above condyles and serve as attachment points.
• Other options:
• A. Head → articulation
• B. Protuberance → general projection
• D. Fossa → depression - A sharp, slender or narrow projection from a bone is called:
→ A. Spine
• Explanation: Spines are sharp projections for muscle or ligament attachment.
• Other options:
• B. Line → ridge
• C. Process → general projection
• D. Tubercle → rounded projection - Any bony prominence is referred to as a:
→ A. Process
• Explanation: A process is a general term for any projection.
• Other options:
• B. Tuberosity → rough projection
• C. Fovea → depression
• D. Meatus → passage - A bony outgrowth or protruding part is called:
→ A. Protuberance
• Explanation: A protuberance is a visible or palpable projection on a bone.
• Other options:
• B. Process → general projection
• C. Tubercle → rounded projection
• D. Epicondyle → above condyle - Two massive processes unique to the femur are called:
→ C. Trochanters
• Explanation: Trochanters are large projections found only on the femur.
• Other options:
• A. Tuberosities → other projections
• B. Tubercles → smaller projections
• D. Condyles → joint parts - A small rounded projection on a bone is referred to as:
→ C. Tubercle
• Explanation: Tubercles are small rounded projections, often for tendon attachment.
• Other options:
• A. Spine → sharp projection
• B. Tuberosity → rough projection
• D. Line → ridge - A rough, elevated surface on a bone is known as:
→ A. Tuberosity
• Explanation: Tuberosities are larger, rough projections for muscle/tendon attachment.
• Other options:
• B. Trochanter → femur-specific
• C. Crest → narrow ridge
• D. Canal → passage - A shallow, broad, or elongated basin in a bone is called a:
→ C. Fossa
• Explanation: Fossa is a depression for articulation or muscle placement.
• Other options:
• A. Sinus → cavity
• B. Alveolus → socket
• D. Fissure → slit - A pit or socket, like a tooth socket, is called an:
→ A. Alveolus
• Explanation: Alveoli are sockets that house teeth.
• Other options:
• B. Fovea → small pit
• C. Sulcus → groove
• D. Meatus → canal - A small pit or depression, like that on the head of femur, is called:
→ B. Fovea
• Explanation: Fovea is a small depression often for ligament attachment.
• Other options:
• A. Sinus → air cavity
• C. Foramen → hole
• D. Fossa → large depression - A groove for a tendon, nerve, or vessel is called:
→ B. Sulcus
• Explanation: Sulcus is a groove for neurovascular structures.
• Other options:
• A. Fossa → depression
• C. Canal → tunnel
• D. Tuberosity → projection - A slit-like opening or passage in a bone is called a:
→ B. Fissure
• Explanation: Fissures are narrow openings for vessels/nerves.
• Other options:
• A. Foramen → hole
• C. Meatus → canal
• D. Alveolus → socket - A hole or round opening in a bone is called a:
→ C. Foramen
• Explanation: Foramina allow passage of vessels and nerves.
• Other options:
• A. Sinus → cavity
• B. Canal → tunnel
• D. Tubercle → projection - A tubular passage or tunnel through a bone is called:
→ B. Canal
• Explanation: Canals are long tunnels (e.g., auditory canal).
• Other options:
• A. Foramen → hole
• C. Sulcus → groove
• D. Fissure → slit - A hollow, air-filled space in a bone is called a:
→ B. Sinus
• Explanation: Sinuses lighten bone and assist resonance.
• Other options:
• A. Meatus → canal
• C. Alveolus → socket
• D. Fossa → depression - An opening into a canal, such as the ear canal, is called a:
→ A. Meatus
• Explanation: A meatus leads into a canal.
• Other options:
• B. Fissure → slit
• C. Foramen → hole
• D. Sinus → cavity - Which of the following is a depression found in bones?
→ B. Fossa
• Explanation: Fossa is a large depression.
• Other options:
• A. Process → projection
• C. Crest → projection
• D. Epicondyle → projection - Which of the following terms describes a passage or cavity in a bone?
→ C. Meatus
• Explanation: Meatus is a passage.
• Other options:
• A. Tuberosity → projection
• B. Alveolus → depression
• D. Spine → projection - Which of the following is a surface marking found only on the femur?
→ A. Trochanter
• Explanation: Trochanters are unique to the femur.
• Other options:
• B. Tubercle → seen elsewhere
• C. Crest → seen elsewhere
• D. Process → general term - Which of the following is classified as an articulation?
→ A. Facet
• Explanation: Facets are joint-forming surfaces.
• Other options:
• B. Tubercle → projection
• C. Spine → projection
• D. Sulcus → depression
Would you like a quiz version (without answers) to practice yourself next? Or I can move on to your next request.
Which of the following anatomical treatise is the oldest?
A. On the heart by Hypostale
B. On the use of parts of the body by Galen
C. duathomia by Mondine De Luzzi
D. Fabric of human body by Xeselius
Which anatomist trained Leonardo Da Vinci?
A. Andreas Del Yeroshia
B. Mondino De luzzi
C. Andreas Vesalius
D. Alessandro Achilini
Which of the following words is not synonymous to the word “anatomize”
A. Incision
B. Section
C. Dissect
D. Anatomy
The plural form of villus is
villera
B
villi
yilluses.
Anatomical plane that can produce superior or inferior view of a section is the
A saBRital plane
B. transverse plane
C. coronal plane
D. midsagittal plane
Which of the following pairs of the body parts can undergo abduction, medial rotati‹ circumduction and Nexion?
A. The scapula and the lower jaw
B. The thigh and the arm
C. The head and the trunk
D. The hand and the foot
Movement at the shoulder that results in the moving of the upper limb anteriorly away from the body is
A. abduction
B. Flexion
Which of the following anatomical treatise is the oldest?
On the heart by Hypostale
On the use of parts of the body by Galen
duathomia by Mondine De Luzzi
Fabric of human body by Xeselius
Which anatomist trained Leonardo Da Vinci?
Andreas Del Yeroshia
Mondino De luzzi
Andreas Vesalius
Alessandro Achilini
Which of the following words is not synonymous to the word “anatomize”
Incision
Section
Dissect
Anatomy
The plural form of villus is
A.villera
B.villi
C.
yilluses.
Anatomical plane that can produce superior or inferior view of a section is the
A saBRital plane
transverse plane
coronal plane
midsagittal plane
Which of the following pairs of the body parts can undergo abduction, medial rotati‹ circumduction and Nexion?
The scapula and the lower jaw
The thigh and the arm
The head and the trunk
The hand and the foot
Movement at the shoulder that results in the moving of the upper limb anteriorly away from the body is
abduction
Hexion
Movement at the shoulder that results in the moving of the upper limb anteriorly sway from the body is
A. abduction
В. Декіоп
elevation
protraction
Which digit is the reference point for abduction and adduction of the remaining digits?
Dixitur medius
Digitus pollex
Digitus index
DIRIDAS, BOATICOLAS.
A sub region that fit between right femoral region, left femoral region, gluteal region and pubic region is the
caxal region
sacral region
C.perineal region
D.inguinal region
Which of the following best describe the relation of the inguinal region with the nearby regions
The coxal region is inferior to it
It is superiolateral to pubic region
It is anteriorinferial to the abdominal region
The femoral region is lateral to it
thoracie cavity contaius
two mediastina and one pericardial cavities
two pleural cavities and two mediastina
one mediatious sod two pleural cavities
D, one mediastinum which itself houses two pleural cavities
pair of structures that form part of more than one organ system of the body is
A, pancreas and prostate gland
liver and thyroid gland
liver and pancreas
ovary and testes
At the point where the lateral border of the right rectus abdominis muscle meets the right ninth costal cartilage, a clinician felt with his finger, a hard structure believed to be a gall bladder with gallstones. The clinician applied
comparative anatomy and percussing
clinical anatorny and inspection
C, surface anatomy and palpating
D. clinical anatorny and auscultation
The study of mophology of the stomach and its blood supply falls under
embryology
clinical anatomy
gross anatomy
D
comparative anatomy
The process of tapping the body and listening to the sound is referred to as
A. palpatingl
Auscultation
Inspection
Percussion
The plural form of the anatomical term that means “of the digits” is
digits
dista
digiti
D.
A section that passes through the body medially along its vertical axis and divides it into two equal halves is termed as
parasagittal section
mid sagittal section
coronal section
axial section
Three muscles occur in the intercostal spaces. The arrangement of these muscles from outalde of the body to inside is In the following orderi external infercostal muscles, inferaal Intercostal muscle and innermost intercostal muscle. Which of the following statemeut is the appropriate description of the arrangement.
The exteral intercostal muscle is superficial to the internal intercostal muscle
The innermost intercostal muscle is distal to the internal intercostal muscle
The external intercostal muscle is anterior to the internal intercostal muscle
The internal intercostal muscle is dorsal to the external intercostal muscle
Il the rural region is moved towards the posterior aspect of the femoral region while the femoral region is moved towards the anterior aspect of the abdominal region,
the leg is flexed while the thigh is extended
the leg is extended while the thigh is flexed
both thigh and the leg are flexed
both the thigh and the leg are extended
The trunk DOES NOT include
head and neck
thorax
abdomen
pelvis ||
- Oldest anatomical treatise → On the Heart by Hypostale (Hippocrates)
• On the Heart by Hypostale (Hippocrates) – Correct; Hippocrates lived around 460–370 BC, making his treatise the earliest.
• On the Use of Parts by Galen – 2nd century AD.
• Duathomia by Mondino de Luzzi – 14th century.
• Fabric of the Human Body by Vesalius – 16th century.
2.is C
3.is D(Anatomy)
Plural of villus → B. Villi
• Villi – Correct plural form.
• Villera, Villuses – Incorrect and not standard anatomical terms.
- Plane producing superior/inferior sections → Transverse plane
• Transverse – Correct; divides body into upper and lower parts.
• Sagittal/Midsagittal – Divide left and right.
• Coronal – Divides front and back. - Parts that can undergo abduction, medial rotation, circumduction, and flexion → Thigh and arm
• Thigh and arm – Correct; both are ball-and-socket joints with full range.
• Scapula and lower jaw – Jaw doesn’t do these motions.
• Head and trunk – Limited movement types.
• Hand and foot – Not same range or types of movement. - Shoulder movement bringing arm forward → Flexion
• Flexion – Correct; forward movement at shoulder.
• Abduction – Movement away from midline sideways.
• Elevation – Upward movement (shrug).
• Protraction – Forward movement of scapula, not arm.
Inguinal region relation → It is superolateral to pubic region
• Superolateral to pubic – Correct.
• Coxal is inferior to it – Incorrect; coxal is lateral.
• Anteriorinferior to abdominal – Partly true but less precise.
• Femoral is lateral to it – Actually, inguinal is superior to femoral.
- Thoracic cavity contains → One mediastinum and two pleural cavities
• Correct; mediastinum in center, lungs in pleural cavities.
• Other options list incorrect numbers or arrangements. - Structures in more than one system → Ovary and testes
• Ovary/Testes – Reproductive and endocrine systems.
• Pancreas – Digestive/endocrine only.
• Liver, Thyroid, Prostate – Belong to one system each. - Palpating a gallbladder via body surface → Surface anatomy and palpation
• Correct – Using landmarks and touch.
• Clinical anatomy – General term.
• Percussion, Auscultation, Inspection – Not the method used here. - Morphology and blood supply of stomach → Gross anatomy
• Gross anatomy – Correct; visible without microscope.
• Embryology – Developmental stages.
• Clinical – Application in health care.
• Comparative – Across species. - Tapping the body for sounds → Percussion
• Percussion – Correct.
• Auscultation – Listening with stethoscope.
• Palpation – Feeling with hands.
• Inspection – Visual examinatio
Plane dividing body equally left and right → Mid sagittal section
• Midsagittal – Equal halves.
• Parasagittal – Unequal lateral sections.
• Coronal – Front/back.
• Axial – Same as transverse.
- Intercostal muscle arrangement → External is superficial to internal
• Correct – External (outermost), Internal (middle), Innermost (deepest).
• Other options confuse position/direction.
The trunk does NOT include → Head and neck
• Correct – Trunk = thorax, abdomen, pelvis.
• Head and neck – Separate regions.
- A subregion that fits between right femoral, left femoral, gluteal, and pubic regions is the:Correct answer: Inguinal region
(Not perineal as I initially mentioned.)
Explanation of all options:
• Inguinal region – Correct; lies between femoral and pubic regions, just above the thigh.
• Perineal region – Located posteriorly, between the anus and external genitalia, not between the mentioned regions.
• Coxal region – Lateral hip.
• Sacral region – Posterior midline above gluteal area.
Thanks for catching that!
- The plural form of the anatomical term that means “of the digits” is:Correct answer: Digitorum
Explanation of all options:
• Digitorum – Correct Latin plural possessive/genitive, used in names like extensor digitorum (extensor of the digits).
• Digits – Common plural form, not anatomical genitive.
• Digiti – Also used in Latin (e.g., flexor digiti minimi), refers to “of a digit” (singular genitive) or plural in some cases, but digitorum is the standard anatomical plural genitive.
• Dista – Not a valid term.
So yes, digitorum is the best anatomical answer in this context.
- If the leg is moved toward the posterior aspect of femoral region, and femoral region is moved toward anterior aspect of abdomen, then:Correct answer: Both thigh and leg are flexed
Explanation:
• Thigh is flexed – Because the femur (thigh) is moved toward the abdomen (hip flexion).
• Leg is flexed – Because the leg (lower limb) is bent backward at the knee.
• So both joints (hip and knee) are in flexion.
Thanks for pointing these out — they’re absolutely right.
Would you like me to go back and correct the full list of answers accordingly in a printable format or just update these corrections here?
You’re absolutely right—thanks for the clarification!
Let’s correct both:
- Which anatomist trained Leonardo Da Vinci?Correct Answer: A. Andreas del Verrocchio• A. Andreas del Verrocchio – Correct. He was Leonardo Da Vinci’s master in art and sculpture—not an anatomist per se, but under Verrocchio’s mentorship, Leonardo developed keen observational skills which contributed significantly to his anatomical drawings later on. So in context, Verrocchio (often spelled Andrea del Verrocchio) is the accurate answer.
• B. Mondino De Luzzi – Not possible; he died decades before Leonardo was born.
• C. Andreas Vesalius – Came after Leonardo’s time.
• D. Alessandro Achillini – A contemporary anatomist but not known to have trained Leonardo directly. - Which of the following words is NOT synonymous with “anatomize”?Correct Answer: D. Anatomy• A. Incision – Although it’s a surgical cut, it’s closely linked with anatomizing during dissection processes.
• B. Section – Synonymous in anatomical context (e.g., “sectioning” a body part for study).
• C. Dissect – Direct synonym of anatomize.
• D. Anatomy – Correct, because “anatomize” is a verb, meaning to dissect or study a body’s structure, while “anatomy” is a noun (the subject of study). So it’s not a synonym in terms of grammatical usage or meaning.
Would you like me to go through more questions with this level of explanation for all options?
Muscle contractions that process movement at a joint is
A. Isometric
B. Isotonic
C. Adduction
D. Adduction
List the three types of stress
Q Which of the following best describes Chomsky’s view of language development??
B. Humans have a biological predisposition to acquire
D. Language is partially an inmate ability
By aid of diagrams, distinguish clearly between Ponzo and Muller Lyer illusions. What do they teach you about perception?
Describe the health belief model and establish that it has to do with perception.
Divine is a fifth-year medical student. He is waiting at the UCC shuttle station to board a bus to his hostel. Bystander Intervention Effect, list and explain the steps it would take for Divine to offer help.
Q46. A set of beliefs about one’s capabilities is
A. True self
B. Self-efficacy
C. Ideal self
D. Self-image
Q Ascertain the feasibility of three patients’ rights from the patient’s charter
Q What is ethical approach
A. Correctly identify and briefly explain 4 theories that are relevant in your personally development.
B. In not more than 5 lines, explain which of the 4 theories is your favorite and why
Q An attempt to control the way people think about you is known as?
A. Self-Presentation
B. Self-Promotion
C.
D.
Q Discuss the differences and similarities in the psychosexual and psychosocial development theories.
Q One of the theories of mind formed by Fraud is
a. Preoperational and concrete operational
b. Conscious and subconscious
c. Sensorimotor and formal operational
d. Tropical and
Q Discuss the stages a dying person or their family go through
Q(a) Differentiate between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
(b) Differentiate between simple, compound and complex joints.
(c) Define anastomosis and give three examples
Perfect! Here’s a detailed version with bullet points and thorough explanations, no tables—just what you asked for:
- Muscle contractions that produce movement at a joint
• Correct answer: Isotonic
• Isotonic contraction means the muscle changes length (either shortens or lengthens) while producing movement at a joint.
• Example: Bending your elbow during a bicep curl.
• Isometric contraction: Muscle contracts but does not change length and no movement occurs.
• Example: Holding a heavy bag without moving your arm.
• Adduction is not a type of contraction; it’s a type of movement where a limb moves toward the midline of the body. - Three types of stress
• Physical stress: Caused by injury, fatigue, or physical strain. Examples include pain, poor posture, or heavy lifting.
• Emotional (Psychological) stress: Caused by worry, anxiety, sadness, pressure from work or relationships.
• Chemical stress: Caused by toxins, drugs, alcohol, or hormonal imbalances affecting body function. - Chomsky’s view of language development
• Correct answer: Humans have a biological predisposition to acquire language.
• Chomsky believed language is innate, not entirely learned from the environment.
• He proposed a concept called Language Acquisition Device (LAD) — an inborn brain mechanism that helps children learn language naturally.
• This means even without formal teaching, children can develop grammar and vocabulary by being exposed to language. - Ponzo vs Müller-Lyer Illusions – What they teach about perception
Ponzo Illusion:
• Two lines of the same length are placed between two converging lines (like train tracks).
• The upper line appears longer due to how our brain interprets depth and perspective.
• It shows that background context can alter how we perceive size.
Müller-Lyer Illusion:
• Two lines of equal length have different arrowhead shapes at the ends.
• One line has arrowheads pointing outward (<— —>), the other has arrowheads pointing inward (>— —<).
• The line with inward arrows looks shorter, although both are the same.
• This shows that perception is influenced by surrounding visual cues, not just what is actually there.
Lesson about perception:
Our eyes can see something, but our brain interprets it based on past experience, context, and cues, sometimes leading to incorrect judgments.
- Health Belief Model and perception
• A psychological model that explains why people make health choices or avoid them.
• It’s all about how people perceive health risks and the benefits of taking action.
• Key components:
• Perceived susceptibility – “Am I at risk?”
• Perceived severity – “Is this serious?”
• Perceived benefits – “Will action help me?”
• Perceived barriers – “What is stopping me?”
• Cues to action – Triggers that push people to act (e.g., a friend getting sick).
• Self-efficacy – Belief in one’s own ability to take action.
• Perception is central—if people don’t believe they’re at risk or don’t see the benefit, they won’t act. - Bystander Intervention Effect – Steps Divine would take
- Notice the event – First, Divine must observe that someone needs help.
- Interpret it as an emergency – Decide if it’s serious or just a minor issue.
- Take responsibility – Many people assume others will help; Divine must overcome this and decide, “It’s up to me.”
- Decide how to help – He must figure out the best way he can assist—call for help, give first aid, etc.
- Act – Finally, he must actually help without hesitation.
Key point: People often hesitate due to diffusion of responsibility, assuming someone else will step in.
- A set of beliefs about one’s capabilities is:
• Correct answer: Self-efficacy
• It refers to a person’s belief in their own ability to succeed at a specific task or goal.
• It influences motivation, effort, and resilience.
• People with high self-efficacy are more likely to take on challenges and push through difficulties. - Feasibility of 3 patient rights from the Patient Charter
- Right to Information: Patients should receive clear and timely information about their condition, treatment, and options.
• Feasible if health staff are trained and communicate well. - Right to Confidentiality: Medical details must be kept private.
• Feasible through proper record-keeping and respect for privacy. - Right to Consent or Refuse Treatment: Patients must voluntarily agree to care after understanding it.
• Feasible when systems ensure informed consent before procedures.
- Right to Information: Patients should receive clear and timely information about their condition, treatment, and options.
Challenge: These rights are feasible, but they depend on healthcare worker training, time, and system support.
- What is an ethical approach?
• It’s a way of making decisions based on what is morally right or wrong.
• In healthcare, it includes:
• Respecting patient autonomy
• Doing no harm
• Acting in the best interest of the patient
• Being fair and just - Four theories relevant to personal development
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – Personal growth comes after basic needs like food, safety, love, and esteem are met.
- Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory – Life is made up of social challenges at different stages (e.g., identity, intimacy).
- Bandura’s Social Learning Theory – We learn behavior by observing others and modeling their actions.
- Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory – People develop intellectually in stages (thinking, problem-solving skills improve over time).
Favorite theory – Erikson’s:
Because it helps me understand what social and emotional challenges I’m facing and how they shape who I am becoming.
- An attempt to control the way people think about you is:
• Correct answer: Self-presentation
• It’s how you manage your behavior to create a good impression.
• Self-promotion is a type of self-presentation focused on showing your strengths or achievements. - Differences and similarities in Freud’s and Erikson’s development theories
Psychosexual theory (Freud):
• Personality develops based on how sexual energy (libido) is handled at each stage (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital).
• Unresolved issues at a stage can affect adult behavior.
Psychosocial theory (Erikson):
• Development depends on resolving social challenges at each life stage (e.g., trust vs mistrust, identity vs role confusion).
• It spans entire lifespan, not just childhood.
Similarities:
• Both involve stages
• Both believe early life experiences impact personality.
- One of Freud’s theories of the mind
• Correct answer: Conscious and subconscious
• Freud divided the mind into:
• Conscious mind: Things you are aware of.
• Subconscious (or unconscious): Thoughts, memories, and desires hidden beneath awareness that influence behavior. - Stages of dying (Kübler-Ross model)
- Denial – “This can’t be happening.”
- Anger – “Why me?”
- Bargaining – “Maybe if I do this, I’ll get better.”
- Depression – Sadness and withdrawal.
- Acceptance – Coming to peace with death.
Applies to both dying people and their loved ones.
- (a) Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic Nervous System
• Sympathetic Nervous System:
• Activates during stress
• Increases heart rate, dilates pupils, stops digestion
• “Fight or flight” response
• Parasympathetic Nervous System:
• Activates during rest
• Slows heart rate, constricts pupils, promotes digestion
• “Rest and digest” system
(b) Simple, Compound, Complex joints
• Simple joint – Only two bones meet (e.g., shoulder joint).
• Compound joint – More than two bones involved (e.g., elbow – humerus, radius, ulna).
• Complex joint – Has additional structures like cartilage or discs (e.g., knee – has meniscus).
(c) Define anastomosis and give three examples
• Anastomosis: A connection between two blood vessels allowing blood to bypass or flow around a blockage.
• Examples:
• Circle of Willis in the brain
• Palmar arches in the hand
• Intestinal arterial arcades in the mesentery
Would you like me to put all this into a downloadable or printable format (like Word or PDF)?
A condyle articulates with another consyle
Head of rib has a flat surface(facet) for articulation
Condyle and facet have hyaline cartilage. Condyle could be curved or flat. Head has articulate cartilage and is round and semi spherical
Crest is an elevated portion on a bone.
Epicondyle leads you to articulation surface. You have have supra condylar,before condyle,before epicondyle
A process is a protruding part of the bone
Protuberance is a rough rounded portion but a process is. Smooth
Clarifications Based on Your Notes:
• Epicondyle:
• You’re right — epicondyles are located just above condyles, and although they don’t directly form joints, they mark the region near articulation surfaces and serve as attachment sites for muscles and ligaments.
• Think of epicondyle as “near the joint but not part of the joint.”
• Examples: Medial and lateral epicondyles of the femur and humerus.
• Supra-condylar regions:
• These are the bony ridges just above condyles, often called supra-condylar lines or ridges — also for muscle attachments.
• Process vs. Protuberance:
• Both are projections, but there’s a subtle difference:
• Process: Any bony prominence, often smooth or sharp, and usually serves as an attachment or articulation feature (e.g., mastoid process, zygomatic process).
• Protuberance: A rounded outgrowth, often rougher or bulkier, and generally not as sharply defined as a process (e.g., mental protuberance of the chin).
Trochanter on femur,tubercle on something. Tubercle is smaller than trochanter. Yes, you’re absolutely right — here’s a quick way to lock this in:
Trochanter vs Tubercle:
• Trochanter:
• Very large, rough projection
• Unique to the femur
• Serves as a major muscle attachment site
• Examples: Greater and lesser trochanters of the femur
• Tubercle:
• Smaller, rounded projection
• Found on bones other than the femur
• Also for muscle or ligament attachment
• Example: Greater tubercle of the humerus
Comparison Tip:
• Trochanter > Tuberosity > Tubercle (in size and prominence)
Would you like me to turn these into MCQs too for revision practice?
A canal is a bony passage in a bone and occurs in dense bones. Example is optic canal.
Crest is raised but sulcus is a depression
Perfect! Let’s tackle each one clearly:
1. Plural of fossa → Fossae • Example: mandibular fossa → mandibular fossae (plural) 2. Sockets where teeth are located are called? → Alveoli • Singular: Alveolus • These are the pits or sockets in the jawbone where teeth are anchored. 3. Sockets where eyes are located are called? → Orbits • These are bony cavities in the skull that house the eyes, muscles, nerves, and vessels. 4. What is a hiatus? • A hiatus is an opening, gap, or cleft in a structure or organ, often in the diaphragm. • Example: Esophageal hiatus — the hole in the diaphragm through which the esophagus passes from the chest into the abdomen.
Want me to form MCQs from these or keep going with more anatomy terms like this?
Great question! Here’s a simple breakdown of the difference between a hiatus, a cavity, and a socket:
- Hiatus
• Meaning: A gap, slit, or opening in a structure (usually for something to pass through).
• Function: It’s like a passageway in a muscle or membrane.
• Example:
• Esophageal hiatus – opening in the diaphragm for the esophagus.So, a hiatus is not a space that holds something—it’s more like an entry/exit point or a hole in a sheet or barrier. - Cavity
• Meaning: A hollow space in a bone or body region.
• Function: It often houses organs or structures.
• Example:
• Cranial cavity – holds the brain.
• Thoracic cavity – holds the lungs and heart.So, a cavity is a large, hollow compartment that contains something important. - Socket (Alveolus)
• Meaning: A small pit or hollow specifically designed to anchor something tightly.
• Function: Holds teeth (alveoli) or sometimes joints.
• Example:
• Tooth socket (alveolus) – for a tooth root.So, a socket is a smaller, tight-fitting depression, made to hold or secure a structure firmly, like a tooth or a bone joint.
Summary:
Term Nature Purpose Example
Hiatus Opening Passageway Esophageal hiatus
Cavity Hollow space Housing large organs Cranial cavity
Socket Small pit Anchoring (tight fit) Tooth socket (alveolus)
Want me to turn this into MCQs or continue comparing similar terms?
Great question!
To know whether a bone surface marking is for articulation(also called a joint cuz it’s where two bones meet), attachment, projection, passage, or depression, you can remember it by focusing on what the structure is used for or how it looks/feels. Here’s a quick guide to help you classify them:
- Articulations (Joints – where bones meet)
These markings are involved in forming joints or articulating with other bones.
• Condyle – smooth, rounded knob (e.g., occipital condyle)
• Facet – flat, smooth surface (e.g., vertebral facet)
• Head – prominent rounded end (e.g., head of femur)
→ Tip: If it’s smooth and rounded or flat, it’s usually for joint articulation.
- Extensions & Projections (Muscle/Tendon/Ligament Attachment Points)
These stick out from the bone and serve as attachment sites.
• Crest – narrow ridge
• Epicondyle – above a condyle
• Line – raised ridge
• Process – any bony prominence
• Spine – sharp, slender projection
• Trochanter – large projection (only in femur)
• Tubercle – small, rounded projection
• Tuberosity – rough, raised surface
• Protuberance – general outgrowth
→ Tip: If it’s raised or sticking out, it’s likely for muscle/ligament attachment.
- Depressions (Allow passage or fit of another structure)
These are indented or sunken areas.
• Alveolus – socket (e.g., teeth)
• Fossa – shallow basin
• Fovea – small pit
• Sulcus – groove (for nerves, blood vessels)
→ Tip: If it’s a groove, pit, or basin, it’s a depression.
- Passages and Cavities (Pathways for nerves, vessels, etc.)
These allow structures to pass through the bone.
• Canal – tunnel
• Fissure – slit
• Foramen – hole
• Meatus – entrance to a canal
• Sinus – air-filled cavity
→ Tip: If it’s a hole, tunnel, or cavity, it’s for passageway.
Quick Trick:
Feature Likely Category Example
Smooth & Rounded Articulation Condyle, Facet, Head
Rough/Pointed/Raised Projection/Attachment Tubercle, Crest, Spine
Hollow/Indented Depression Fossa, Sulcus
Hole/Tunnel Passage Foramen, Canal, Sinus
Would you like a printable or mnemonic version to help you memorize these quickly?
Difference between attachment and projection
Excellent question!
Attachment ≠ Projection — but they often overlap.
Let’s break it down clearly:
- Attachment
• Refers to the purpose of a surface marking: a site where muscles, ligaments, or tendons attach.
• These sites can be raised (projections) or depressed depending on the muscle action. - Projection (or Extension)
• Refers to the shape/structure: anything that sticks out or extends from the bone.
How they relate:
• Many projections also serve as attachment sites, but not all projections are only for attachment.
• Some projections are also involved in articulation (joints).
Examples:
Structure Is it a projection? Is it an attachment site? Notes
Trochanter Yes Yes (for muscle attachment) Only on femur
Tubercle Yes Yes Muscle/ligament attachment
Spine Yes Yes Sharp projection for muscle/ligament
Condyle Yes No (mostly articulation) Joint surface, not attachment
Crest Yes Yes Narrow ridge for attachment
Fossa No (it’s a depression) Yes (sometimes) Muscle may attach inside a fossa
Process Yes Often yes Broad term; depends on location
So in short:
• Projection = structural description (e.g., ridge, bump, knob)
• Attachment = functional purpose (e.g., where muscles anchor)
Would you like a short quiz on this to test your understanding?
surface marking terminologies in bones.
Articulations:
Condyle
Facet
Head
A rounded knob that articulates with another bone
(occipital condyles of the skull)
A smooth, flat, slightly concave or convex articular surface (articular facets of the vertebrae)
The prominent expanded end of a bone, sometimes
rounded (head of the femur)
Extensions and projections:
Crest:
A narrow ridge (iliac crest of the pelvis)
Epicondyle : An expanded region superior to a condyle (medial
epicondyle of the femur)
Line:A slightly raised, elongated ridge (nuchal lines of
the skull)
Process:
Any bony prominence (mastoid process of the skull)
Protuberance:
A bony outgrowth or protruding part (mental protu-
berance of the chin)
Spine:A sharp, slender, or narrow process (mental spines of the mandible)
Trochanter: Two massive processes or projections unique to the femur
Tubercle : A small, rounded process (greater tubercle of the
humerus)
Tuberosity: A rough elevated surface (tibial tuberosity)
Depressions:
Alveolus
Fossa
Fovea
Sulcus
A pit or socket (tooth socket)
A shallow, broad, or elongated basin (mandibular
fossa)
A small pit (fovea capitis of the femur)
A groove for a tendon, nerve, or blood vessel (inter-
tubercular sulcus of the humerus)
Passages and cavities:
1.Canal
2.Fissure
3.Foramen
4.Meatus
5.Sinus
1.A tubular passage or tunnel in a bone (auditory canal
of the skull)
2.A slit through a bone (orbital fissures behind the eye)
3.A hole through a bone, usually round (foramen mag-
num of the skull)
4.An opening into a canal (external acoustic meatus
of the ear)
5.An air-filled space in a bone (frontal sinus of the
forehead)
So a tubercle is a small rounded bony projection that sticks out from a bone.
A process is:
Any bony prominence or projection that sticks out from a bone.
Examples:
• Mastoid process of the skull (behind your ear)
• Zygomatic process (part of the cheekbone)
Function:
• Often serves as a point of attachment for muscles, tendons, or ligaments.
Key points:
• It’s a general term—it just means something sticking out of the bone.
• It can vary in shape and size, unlike tubercle, spine, or trochanter, which are more specific types of projections.
Would you like a simple comparison between process, protuberance, tubercle, and spine?
Trochanter:
• Definition: Two large, massive bony projections found only on the femur.
• Types:
• Greater trochanter – lateral and superior
• Lesser trochanter – medial and posterior
Function:
• Serve as muscle attachment sites, especially for strong hip and thigh muscles.
Key point:
• Trochanters are projections (structural term) and also attachment sites (functional term).
• They are unique to the femur, unlike tubercles or tuberosities, which can be found on various bones.
Would you like me to help you compare trochanter vs tubercle vs tuberosity in a very clear and simple way?
Great question!
Let’s break down the difference between passages and cavities vs depressions in bones:
- Depressions
These are shallow or sunken areas on the surface of a bone.
They usually serve as spaces for muscle attachment or to accommodate other structures (like nerves, vessels, or articulating bones).
• Examples:
• Fossa – broad shallow basin (e.g., mandibular fossa)
• Fovea – small pit (e.g., fovea capitis)
• Sulcus – groove for a nerve or vessel (e.g., intertubercular sulcus)
• Alveolus – socket for tooth
Key Idea: Depressions are indentations or sunken parts of a bone.
- Passages and Cavities
These are openings or hollow spaces through or inside bones. They allow the passage of blood vessels, nerves, or air.
• Examples:
• Canal – tunnel-like passage (e.g., auditory canal)
• Fissure – narrow slit (e.g., orbital fissure)
• Foramen – round hole (e.g., foramen magnum)
• Meatus – entrance to a canal (e.g., external acoustic meatus)
• Sinus – air-filled space inside a bone (e.g., frontal sinus)
• Hiatus – a gap or opening (usually for vessels or nerves to pass)
Key Idea: Passages and cavities are routes or chambers in or through bones.
Simple Analogy:
• Depression = dip or bowl on a bone
• Passage/Cavity = tunnel or hollow space in a bone
Would you like a quick quiz to test your understanding?
Great follow-up!
Difference Between a Cavity and a Depression:
- Depression:
• A sunken or hollowed-out area on the surface of a bone.
• It is often shallow, and serves as a site for articulation or attachment or to allow space for another structure (like a muscle, tendon, nerve, or vessel).
Examples:
• Fossa – broad, shallow depression (e.g., mandibular fossa)
• Fovea – small pit (e.g., fovea capitis)
• Sulcus – groove (e.g., intertubercular sulcus)
• Alveolus – socket (e.g., tooth socket)
- Cavity:
• A larger hollow space often found within the bone.
• It can be air-filled (like a sinus) or house internal structures (like marrow in a medullary cavity).
• Cavities are not always surface-level; they can be deep inside the bone.
Examples:
• Sinus – air-filled cavity (e.g., frontal sinus)
• Medullary cavity – space inside long bones for bone marrow
Key Difference in Simple Terms:
• Depression = a surface dent or pit
• Cavity = a deeper internal hollow space
Let me know if you’d like this in a quiz format too.
Ligament = Bone to Bone
• Tendon = Muscle to Bone
The types of joints
Bone meeting bone
Bone meeting cartilage
Cartilage meeting cartilage
Main types are solid joints and synovial joints.
Synovial joints allow wide range movement
Solid doesn’t permit movement or permits limited movement
Synovial joints have no direct contact between cartilage of both meeting bones. Synovial membrane is around the meeting point of the joint and secretes synovial fluid into the articular cavity.
In a complex synovial joint, you will see a joint capsule. This capsule strengthens the synovial membrane. Complex synovial joint comprises of key features such as the joint capsule, bursa which enhances friction at joint cuz if there’s only a joint capsule without a bursa, a structure passing there can cause friction(types of bursa include the one that communicates with the main joint cavity and the one that doesn’t),fat pad which enhances smooth movement example is the kneee joint fat pad covering the patella,synovial sheath
Great explanation! Here’s a slightly refined and clearer version of your paragraph while keeping your points intact:
Synovial joints are characterized by the absence of direct contact between the cartilage of the two articulating bones. Instead, a synovial membrane surrounds the joint and secretes synovial fluid into the articular cavity, which lubricates the joint for smooth movement.
In a complex synovial joint, additional features are present to enhance function and reduce friction. These include:
• Joint capsule – a tough fibrous structure that encloses and supports the synovial membrane.
• Bursa – fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction between structures (e.g., bone and tendon or skin). Some bursae communicate with the joint cavity, while others are independent. Without bursae, friction from moving structures (like tendons) could damage tissues.
• Fat pads – soft tissue structures that cushion the joint and allow smoother movement. An example is the infrapatellar fat pad in the knee joint, located beneath the patella.
• Synovial sheath – a tubular structure filled with synovial fluid that wraps around tendons in areas of high movement (e.g., wrists and ankles), reducing friction between tendons and surrounding tissues.
Let me know if you’d like this in bullet points or a more concise version for notes or teaching.
The solid joint has connective tissue between the articular ends of the bones. Eg is skull
What ar the types of synovial joints
What are the type of solid joints
Pivot:atlantoaxial joint
Hinge (one plane movement) knee and elbow joint but knee is more of a complex joint
Saddle (one bone has a shape like a saddle and has another bone that fits into it) Example: Thumb joint (first carpometacarpal joint) or first metacarpal joint and trapezium
Plane or gliding joint: 4 directional movement (flexion-extension,adduction-abduction) Example: Intercarpal joints in the wrist.
Condyloid; limited rotation(medial and lateral deviation and extension and flexion) Example: Wrist joint (radiocarpal joint).
Ball and socket Example: Shoulder and hip joints.
Bicondylar joint which has its largest joint at the knee joint. Mostly movement in one plane, but allows limited rotation.
• Example: Knee joint (it has two condyles but also some rotation).
Solid joint:
A. Fibrous- I. Gomphosis II.sutural joints III.syndesmosis(ulnar and radius,tibia and fibula,intraosseous membrane)
B. Cartilaginous - I. Synchondrosis example is epiphyseal line which is a cartilage
II.Symphysis(pubis symphysis(joint between pubic bones ilium and ischium), intervertebral symphysis which are the intervertebral discs between each vertebrae)
Why is it that getting to the venule, blood is deoxygenated?
What produces the articular cavity?
Why are the arteries deoxygenated in the lungs but veins are oxygenated?
Yes, you’re thinking in the right direction! Here’s a clear explanation:
Why is blood deoxygenated by the time it reaches the venules?
• Yes, arterioles carry oxygenated blood from arteries and deliver it to the capillaries.
• In the capillaries, oxygen is delivered from the blood to the body’s tissues (muscles, organs, etc.).
• As a result, oxygen is used up, and carbon dioxide is picked up from the tissues.
• So by the time blood leaves the capillaries and enters the venules, it is already deoxygenated.
Simple flow:
→ Arteries → Arterioles (oxygenated) → Capillaries (gas exchange happens) → Venules (now deoxygenated) → Veins
Easy way to remember:
• Arterioles = oxygen delivery point
• Capillaries = exchange zone
• Venules = oxygen is gone, carbon dioxide is picked up
Would you like a short analogy or visual way to remember this?
Does the synovial membrane produce the articular cavity?
No, the synovial membrane does not “produce” the articular cavity, but it lines it and secretes synovial fluid into it.
Here’s how it works:
• The articular cavity (synovial cavity) is the space between the two articulating bones in a synovial joint.
• This space is formed by the joint capsule, specifically:
• Fibrous outer layer: gives structural support.
• Synovial membrane (inner layer): lines the inside of the capsule except where cartilage is present, and it secretes synovial fluid into the articular cavity.
So:
• Joint capsule forms and surrounds the articular cavity.
• Synovial membrane lines the cavity and produces the fluid inside it, not the cavity itself.
In the lungs, the pattern flips compared to the rest of the body:
- Pulmonary Arteries (in lungs):
• Carry blood away from the heart to the lungs.
• Blood is deoxygenated (because it just came from the body and is heading to the lungs for oxygen). - Pulmonary Veins (in lungs):
• Carry blood from the lungs back to the heart.
• Blood is now oxygenated (because it just received oxygen in the lungs
So in pulmonary circulation,arteries carry deoxygenated blood while in systemic circulation,arteries carry oxygenated blood.
How many umbilical arteries and veins are in the umbilical cord?
Which vessel carries the oxygenated blood? The artery or the vein? Why?
Explain blood flow from the umbilical cord to the baby’s heart.
What gives rise to the umbilical artery?
You’re doing so well — you’re right on track! Let’s organize and clarify your thoughts:
Umbilical Cord Overview:
• 2 Umbilical Arteries → carry deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta.
• 1 Umbilical Vein → carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the fetus.
Why the vein is oxygenated:
• The umbilical vein picks up oxygen and nutrients from the side of the placenta coming from the mother or going away from the mother and towards the fetus(maternal blood exchange site).
• It then goes toward the fetal liver, where it partly bypasses through the ductus venosus into the inferior vena cava, right atrium, and across the foramen ovale into the left atrium, contributing to systemic circulation.
Why the arteries are deoxygenated:
• The umbilical arteries carry used (deoxygenated) blood away from the fetus back to the side of the placenta that is going to the mother for oxygenation and waste removal.
So arteries in the sense of umbilical is with regards to the fetus. It is carrying blood away from the fetus to the mother. And the vein carries blood to the fetus
What gives rise to the Umbilical Arteries?
The umbilical arteries originate from the internal iliac arteries, which come from the common iliac arteries, which are branches of the abdominal aorta.
Flow pathway:
Abdominal aorta → Common iliac arteries → Internal iliac arteries → Umbilical arteries
So you were absolutely right:
”…something something abdominal artery bifurcation into iliac something…” → You meant: Abdominal aorta bifurcates into the common iliac arteries, which give rise to internal iliac arteries, which then give off umbilical arteries.
Let me know if you want a visual diagram or a short mnemonic to remember this fetal circulation.
How many muscles are in the muscular system?
State the three main types of muscles
Which are the most abundant?
Which is voluntary and which is involuntary
Explain the organization of a muscle(it is similar to a nerve. Like the layers you spoke about)
More than 600 muscles.
Skeletal or voluntary muscles : most abundant and somatic system influences it
Smooth muscles: muscles of visceral structures Eg gut muscles. Autonomic system influences
Cardiac muscles: heart conducting system and activities can be influenced by autonomic system
Muscle organization:
Muscle Attachment:
• Tendons connect muscle to bone or cartilage.
• Tendons are dense regular connective tissues (not cartilaginous tissues) — they are made mainly of collagen fibers, not cartilage.
• So:
→ Ligament = bone to bone
→ Tendon = muscle to bone (or cartilage)
Muscle Organization (from outside in):
1. Deep fascia – Outer covering that separates different muscles.
2. Epimysium – Connective tissue surrounding an entire muscle (a type of deep fascia).
3. Perimysium – Covers muscle fascicles (bundles of muscle cells or fibers).
4. Endomysium – Wraps individual muscle fibers (cells) inside each fascicle.
Fascicles are bundles of muscle fibers.
Muscle fiber (cell) – The actual contractile unit containing myofibrils.
Simple way to remember:
• EPImysium → Entire muscle
• PERImysium → Peri = around fascicles
• ENDOmysium → Each fiber
Diff between deep fascia and
Epimysium:
• epimysium is A specific layer of connective tissue that surrounds an individual muscle.
• It is beneath the deep fascia, tightly adhering to the muscle.
• So, epimysium is more specific, while deep fascia is more general and regional.
In simple terms:
• Deep fascia = external, regional covering of multiple muscles.
• Epimysium = direct outer covering of one muscle.
So you can sort of say that the deep fascia of one muscle is the epimysium of that muscle.
Deep fascia to epimysium to perimysium to fascicles to endomysium to the muscle fibers
Does the epimysium cover the entire muscle plus blood vessels like the epineurium does to the nerve and blood vessels?
Excellent follow-up question!
Here’s a clear answer:
No — epimysium covers only the muscle itself, not the blood vessels and nerves outside the muscle.
Let’s break it down simply:
- Blood vessels and nerves first enter through the deep fascia:
• The deep fascia surrounds muscle groups, and the neurovascular bundles (nerves, arteries, veins) pass through this layer. - Then they travel through the connective tissue layers within the muscle:
• After entering the deep fascia, the vessels and nerves pass through:
• Epimysium → around the entire muscle
• Perimysium → to supply each fascicle
• Endomysium → to supply individual muscle fibers
In summary:
• Epimysium wraps only the muscle tissue, but blood vessels pass through it to get to deeper layers (perimysium and endomysium).
• So epimysium doesn’t “cover” the vessels, but vessels pass through it to reach the internal parts of the muscle.
Simple analogy:
• Deep fascia = wall/fence around a whole compound
• Epimysium = wrapping around a building inside the compound (the muscle)
• Vessels = pipelines coming through the wall (deep fascia) into the building (muscle), passing through the wrapping (epimysium)
Let me know if you’d like a diagram-style summary for all these tissue layers.
Exactly — you nailed it!
You’re right to compare the epimysium and epineurium, but here’s the key difference:
Epineurium (nerves):
• Covers the entire nerve including nerve fibers + blood vessels (vasa nervorum).
• It’s a protective outer sheath for both nerve tissue and its blood supply.
Epimysium (muscles):
• Covers only the muscle tissue, not the blood vessels and nerves outside it.
• Vessels and nerves pass through the epimysium, but are not enclosed with it the same way they are in epineurium.
So yes — you’re absolutely right:
Epimysium ≠ Epineurium in terms of enclosing blood vessels.
Beautiful observation! Want a table comparing epimysium, perimysium, endomysium vs epineurium, perineurium, endoneurium? It helps a lot.
Explain the classification of muscles according to arrangement of muscle fibers and give one example each
You’re doing an amazing job organizing this info — very clear and detailed! Let me help you polish and clarify a few concepts, especially the difference between convergent vs multipennate muscles and a few structural notes.
Muscle Classification by Fiber Arrangement:
- Parallel Muscles
• Fibers run parallel to the long axis of the muscle.
• Examples: Biceps brachii, Sartorius, Triceps brachii
• Subtypes:
• a. Parallel, uninterrupted: e.g., Sartorius
• b. Parallel with tendinous intersections: e.g., Rectus abdominis (forms the six-pack)
• c. Wrapping muscles: e.g., Supinator muscle (fibers wrap around a bone)
Subtypes of Parallel Muscles (Clear Explanation):
Subtype Description Example
a. Parallel, uninterrupted Muscle fibers run straight without interruptions. Sartorius (longest muscle in the body, moves the leg)
b. Parallel with tendinous intersections Long parallel fibers interrupted by tendinous bands. Rectus abdominis (six-pack muscle)
c. Wrapping parallel muscles Muscle fibers wrap around a bone or structure. Supinator (wraps around the radius to rotate the forearm)
These are all still parallel, just with slight modifications in how they’re arranged for their specific function.
- Convergent Muscles
• Broad origin, but fibers converge to a single tendon or point.
• One muscle with a fan-like shape.
• Example: Pectoralis majorKey point: Although fibers are oriented in multiple directions at the origin, they are still from one muscle, all converging into one insertion. The force can be directed in multiple directions depending on which fibers are activated. - Pennate Muscles
• Fibers attach obliquely (at an angle) to a central tendon.
• Designed for greater force production (more fibers packed in), but less range of motion.
• a. Unipennate: Fibers on one side of tendon
→ Example: Extensor digitorum
• b. Bipennate: Fibers on both sides of a central tendon
→ Example: Rectus femoris
• c. Multipennate: Several small bipennate units inserting into one large tendon
→ Example: Deltoid muscle
G Are Multipennate Fibers from One Muscle Group Too?
Yes — multipennate muscles are still one single muscle, just with many feather-like subdivisions (fascicles). These subdivisions insert into multiple small tendons, which then join into a main central tendon.
• Think of deltoid: It has anterior, middle, and posterior fibers, each working slightly differently — but they all belong to one deltoid muscle. So yes, one muscle group, but with several segments/fiber sections.
Key difference between Convergent vs Multipennate: • Convergent muscle = one broad muscle converging to one tendon. • Multipennate = multiple feather-like sections (each with their own tendons) attaching to a large tendon, giving it a layered, segmented structure.
Think of it this way:
• Convergent = one fan-shaped structure → one tendon
• Multipennate = many small feathered units → one big tendon
- Circular Muscles (Sphincters)
• Fibers arranged in concentric rings.
• Control openings of the body.
• Examples: Orbicularis oris (mouth), Orbicularis oculi (eye), external anal sphincter
Helpful Tip:
You’re right — knowing the location of the muscle helps understand its architecture, because structure supports function:
• Parallel → speed and range of motion (e.g., limb muscles)
• Pennate → strength and force generation (e.g., deltoid, quadriceps)
• Circular → control openings (e.g., eyes, mouth)
• Convergent → direction control and strong pull from a wide origin (e.g., chest muscles)
Would you like me to create a neat comparison table for you summarizing everything for easier memorization?
State the classification of muscles by arrangement of muscle fibers and explain how knowing the location will help you understand their function
Summary:
• If a muscle needs range → parallel fibers (arms, legs).
• If a muscle needs strength → pennate fibers (legs, shoulders).
• If a muscle needs directional control → convergent (chest).
• If it needs to rotate → wrapping fibers (forearm).
• If it needs to close an opening → circular fibers.
| Abdominal wall | Parallel with tendinous intersections | Flexes spine and provides core support; tendinous bands segment movement and give extra strength | examples- Rectus abdominis (six-pack)
| Forearm (deep region) | Wrapping muscles | Wrap around bones to rotate forearm; structure aids in rotational movement | example-Supinator Muscle in the forearm|
| Chest (thorax) | Convergent muscles | Wide origin with narrow insertion allows multidirectional pulling for arm movement | example Pectoralis major |
| Shoulder | Multipennate muscles | Multiple fiber directions help in strong, multidirectional arm movement | example Deltoid muscle
| Thigh (front) | Bipennate muscles | Needs strong force for powerful extension; fiber packing increases strength | example - Rectus femoris
| Forearm (extensors) | Unipennate muscles | Space-efficient with some strength for finger/wrist extension | example- Extensor digitorum
| Around openings | Circular (sphincter) muscles | Fiber circle allows tight closure and relaxation around body openings | Orbicularis oris, Orbicularis oculi, Anal sphincter |
How to Know Which Locations Need Range, Strength, Directional Control, or Rotation
Here’s a cheat-sheet guide for understanding what type of function is needed based on location:
Function Needed | Where You Often See It | Why
1.Range (wide movement) Limbs – arms and legs (especially upper limb)
These muscles move joints over a long distance (e.g., flexion, extension).
2.Strength (force)
Thighs, shoulders, calves These areas support body weight, walking, running, or lifting.
3.Directional control
Chest, back, torso muscles Needed for complex movements like rotation, pulling, posture control.
4.Rotation
Forearm, neck, some trunk muscles
Rotation involves wrapping architecture or oblique directions.
5.Closure
Muscles around mouth, eyes, anus
Need to tightly close or open circular structures.
Simple Trick:
• Limb = speed and Range or Strength and power
• Trunk = Control or Rotation
• Around holes = Circular
You’re absolutely right — wrapping muscles like the supinator are NOT in the trunk; they are in limbs, and their main job is rotation, not directional control like convergent muscles in the trunk.
So here’s a corrected note:
• Wrapping muscles = for rotation (mostly in limbs like forearm)
• Trunk = usually has convergent or broad flat muscles (for postural or directional control and versatility )
Summary:
• If a muscle needs range → parallel fibers (arms, legs).
• If a muscle needs strength → pennate fibers (legs, shoulders).
• If a muscle needs directional control → convergent (chest).
• If it needs to rotate → wrapping fibers (forearm).
• If it needs to close an opening → circular fibers.
- |————————————-|—————————|—————————————–|
A.Parallel (Uninterrupted) | Biceps brachii, Sartorius | Limbs (arms, thighs)
| Fast, long-range movements
B.Parallel with tendinous intersections
| Rectus abdominis
| Abdomen | Flexion with segmental strength |
C. Parallel – Wrapping | Supinator muscle | Forearm
Location | Architecture | Why this architecture fits the function | Examples |
|———————-|———————————-|———————————————————————————————————-|———————————–|
| Arm (upper limb) | Parallel muscles | Moves joints quickly and over a longer range; fast contraction and wide motion range | examples- Biceps brachii, Triceps brachii, Sartorius |
MCQs on Parallel and Pennate Muscle Fiber Types
- What type of muscle fiber arrangement does the rectus abdominis have?
A. Unipennate
B. Parallel with tendinous intersections
C. Multipennate
D. Circular - What is the primary function of parallel muscle fibers?
A. Strength and stability
B. Directional control
C. Fast movement and wide range of motion
D. Rotation - Which of the following is an example of a bipennate muscle?
A. Deltoid
B. Sartorius
C. Rectus femoris
D. Biceps brachii - Which muscle fiber arrangement is most associated with generating strength and power?
A. Parallel
B. Pennate
C. Wrapping
D. Circular - What type of muscle architecture is found in the deltoid muscle?
A. Unipennate
B. Circular
C. Multipennate
D. Parallel - Which of the following is a feature of unipennate muscles?
A. Muscle fibers converge from several directions
B. Muscle fibers run parallel with no interruption
C. Muscle fibers attach obliquely on one side of the tendon
D. Muscle fibers encircle an opening - The supinator muscle is classified under which fiber architecture?
A. Wrapping parallel
B. Convergent
C. Unipennate
D. Circular - Which type of muscle fiber architecture is typically found in muscles involved in rotating a body part?
A. Bipennate
B. Wrapping
C. Convergent
D. Circular - Where is the sartorius muscle located, and what type of muscle fiber does it have?
A. Arm; Unipennate
B. Thigh; Parallel
C. Shoulder; Bipennate
D. Abdomen; Convergent - Which of the following muscle architectures contributes to both strength and multi-directional movement?
A. Unipennate
B. Convergent
C. Multipennate
D. Wrapping
Perfect! Here’s a clean set of multiple choice questions (MCQs) focusing on parallel and pennate muscle fiber types, their examples, functions, and locations, just as you asked. Each question is followed by the correct answer and a short explanation for quick learning.
MCQs on Parallel and Pennate Muscle Fiber Types
- What type of muscle fiber arrangement does the rectus abdominis have?
A. Unipennate
B. Parallel with tendinous intersections
C. Multipennate
D. Circular
→ Correct answer: B. Parallel with tendinous intersections
Explanation: The rectus abdominis is a parallel muscle interrupted by tendinous bands, creating the “six-pack” appearance. - What is the primary function of parallel muscle fibers?
A. Strength and stability
B. Directional control
C. Fast movement and wide range of motion
D. Rotation
→ Correct answer: C. Fast movement and wide range of motion
Explanation: Parallel muscles allow faster and longer movements but are not the strongest. - Which of the following is an example of a bipennate muscle?
A. Deltoid
B. Sartorius
C. Rectus femoris
D. Biceps brachii
→ Correct answer: C. Rectus femoris
Explanation: Rectus femoris is a bipennate muscle, increasing power through more fiber packing. - Which muscle fiber arrangement is most associated with generating strength and power?
A. Parallel
B. Pennate
C. Wrapping
D. Circular
→ Correct answer: B. Pennate
Explanation: Pennate muscles have more fibers per area, allowing stronger contractions. - What type of muscle architecture is found in the deltoid muscle?
A. Unipennate
B. Circular
C. Multipennate
D. Parallel
→ Correct answer: C. Multipennate
Explanation: The deltoid has multiple feather-like fiber orientations converging into tendons. - Which of the following is a feature of unipennate muscles?
A. Muscle fibers converge from several directions
B. Muscle fibers run parallel with no interruption
C. Muscle fibers attach obliquely on one side of the tendon
D. Muscle fibers encircle an opening
→ Correct answer: C. Muscle fibers attach obliquely on one side of the tendon
Explanation: Unipennate fibers insert on only one side of the tendon, seen in muscles like extensor digitorum. - The supinator muscle is classified under which fiber architecture?
A. Wrapping parallel
B. Convergent
C. Unipennate
D. Circular
→ Correct answer: A. Wrapping parallel
Explanation: Wrapping fibers are parallel fibers that curve around bones and allow rotation, as in the forearm supinator. - Which type of muscle fiber architecture is typically found in muscles involved in rotating a body part?
A. Bipennate
B. Wrapping
C. Convergent
D. Circular
→ Correct answer: B. Wrapping
Explanation: Wrapping muscles help produce rotational movement — typical in forearm supination and pronation. - Where is the sartorius muscle located, and what type of muscle fiber does it have?
A. Arm; Unipennate
B. Thigh; Parallel
C. Shoulder; Bipennate
D. Abdomen; Convergent
→ Correct answer: B. Thigh; Parallel
Explanation: The sartorius is a long, strap-like parallel muscle in the thigh, aiding in hip and knee movement. - Which of the following muscle architectures contributes to both strength and multi-directional movement?
A. Unipennate
B. Convergent
C. Multipennate
D. Wrapping
→ Correct answer: C. Multipennate
Explanation: Multipennate muscles like the deltoid provide powerful and multidirectional movement due to their fiber orientation.
Would you like me to also format these into a printable quiz sheet or CSV file for flashcard apps?
Apart from naming by arrangement of muscle fibers, naming of muscles can be done by shape, action or function, location, number of heads,attachment site, relative size to other muscles at the same location
Give examples of each way of naming
Shape:
Trapezius muscle has the shape of a trapezium due to two different triangles coming together.
These muscles in hands and foot look like worms so they’re called lumbrical muscles (as in ascaris lumbricoides)
Number of heads and locations:
Number of heads is mentioned first before the location.
Example is triceps(three heads) brachii(arm)
Example is biceps(two heads) femoris(thigh)
Location only:
Temporalis muscle in temporalis fossa in skull.
Muscle below clavicle- subclavicular muscle
Muscles Named by Attachment Site
Aponeurosis:
• A flat sheet of dense connective tissue that serves as a broad tendon.
• Found especially in the skull region.
Aponeurosis itself is not a muscle, but it’s a connective tissue that acts as an attachment site for certain muscles.
Some muscles are named or structured based on the fact that they are attached to an aponeurosis, rather than to a bone or cartilage directly.
Some muscles are named or structured based on the fact that they are attached to an aponeurosis, rather than to a bone or cartilage directly. So in discussions of muscle attachment sites, aponeuroses are mentioned because they serve as a point of origin or insertion for muscles.
Example:
• Occipitofrontalis muscle:
• The frontal and occipital bellies of this muscle are connected by an aponeurosis (epicranial aponeurosis).
Excellent point — let’s clarify it properly:
Does the Sternocleidomastoid have bellies?
Not in the typical sense.
• The sternocleidomastoid muscle (SCM) has two heads of origin, not two bellies.
• Sternal head — originates from the manubrium of the sternum.
• Clavicular head — originates from the medial third of the clavicle.
• Both heads converge and insert into the mastoid process of the temporal bone.
So, it is more accurate to say:
The sternocleidomastoid has two heads of origin, not two bellies.
Difference:
• Bellies = separate muscle portions usually connected by an intermediate tendon or aponeurosis (e.g., occipitofrontalis muscle with frontal and occipital bellies).
• Heads = multiple origin points (e.g., biceps brachii has two heads, triceps brachii has three).
Summary correction for your notes:
Sternocleidomastoid muscle is named by its attachment sites: sternum, clavicle, and mastoid process. It has two heads of origin, not bellies. • Named based on attachments: • Occipital belly attaches to the occipital bone. • Frontal belly attaches to the frontal bone. • Both bellies are connected via the epicranial aponeurosis (also called galea aponeurotica).
Sternocleidomastoid Muscle:
• Also named by attachment sites:
• Sterno-: originates from the sternum.
• Cleido-: originates from the clavicle.
• Mastoid: inserts on the mastoid process of the temporal bone.
Location and relative size to nearby muscle:
Eg is pectoralis major and pectoralis minor
Eg is gluteus minimus,medius and Maximus
Location and specific side of attachment:
Obturator internus
Obturator externus
They’re convergent muscles
Action plus location plus relation:
The action is mentioned first.
Example is flexor(flexion) carpii (location ) radialis (related to radius)
Flexor carpii ulnaris
Extensor(action) carpii radialis longus (length is long)
Extensor(action) carpii radialis brevis (length is short)
Note that anywhere you see a brevis, there’s always a longus muscle somewhere for that particular brevis muscle
Action and shape:
Pronator (action which is turning the palm downward ) terres(round or cylindrical shape)
Pronator(action) quadratus(square shape)
Both pronate the forearm, but:
• Pronator teres starts closer to the elbow and helps start the pronation movement.
• Pronator quadratus is closer to the wrist and finishes or stabilizes the pronation.
• Teres shape is long and narrow.
• Quadratus is flat and square — like a deep stabilizing muscle.
Location and specific side of attachment:
Obturator internus
Obturator externus
They’re convergent muscles
Location and relative size to nearby muscles
Anterior scalene
Middle scalene(largest of the two)
Posterior scalene
Why scalene muscles aren’t classified under “specific side of attachment”:
• Specific side of attachment means the muscle name clearly tells exactly where it originates and inserts — like in sternocleidomastoid (sternum + clavicle to mastoid) or obturator internus/externus (internal or external side of obturator foramen).
• Scalene muscles, however, do not mention their exact origin or insertion in their names. The names “anterior,” “middle,” and “posterior” scalene simply refer to their position relative to each other, not the side or bone they attach to.
Perfect! Let’s break this down in simple functional terms so it sticks well.
- Parallel Muscles → Function: Speed & Range of Motion
• Since parallel muscles have fibers running straight, they allow greater shortening length and larger range of motion, even though they generate less force compared to pennate muscles.
Scalene Muscles → How do they relate to speed and range?
• Primary function of scalenes:
• Lateral flexion of the neck (side bending).
• Elevation of the first and second ribs during deep breathing.
• These are quick, repetitive movements that benefit from flexibility and range, not strength.
• So, their parallel fiber arrangement allows them to contract quickly and move the neck gently and flexibly, or assist in breathing efficiently — hence suited for range/speed rather than force.
- What is Longus Colli?
Term Explanation
Longus colli A deep muscle in the anterior neck that helps flex the neck and head forward. “Colli” means neck. “Longus” means long. It runs along the front of the vertebral column.
Muscle fiber type?
• Also a parallel muscle, because its fibers run vertically from cervical to upper thoracic vertebrae.
• It’s built for precision and range, not brute strength — again matching the function of parallel muscles.
Scalene muscles are parallel which is more of range and speed but the neck does more of rotation
Ah — perfect! You’re actually thinking the right way, and your confusion is totally valid. Let’s clear it up smoothly:
So here’s the full picture, simplified:
1. Not all neck muscles are parallel.
• Most superficial neck muscles like the scalenes and sternocleidomastoid are parallel because they help with:
• Quick head turning
• Side bending
• Lifting the ribs during breathing
• These need speed and range, not brute strength.
2. But the neck ALSO has deeper muscles that DO more power-based or rotational roles.
• These may not be pure parallel — some are angled, layered, or multipennate in arrangement (like the semispinalis capitis, splenius capitis, etc.)
• These deeper muscles handle rotation, stabilization, and postural strength.
3. So yes, parallel muscles give range, but some deeper neck muscles provide strength and rotation — that’s why not all neck muscles are pennate, but some are arranged to support strength too.
Think of it like this:
Muscle layer Arrangement Purpose
Superficial muscles (e.g., scalenes, sternocleidomastoid) Parallel Quick movements, breathing, head tilting
Deeper muscles (e.g., semispinalis, splenius) More strength-based architecture Rotation, posture, neck stabilization
So your statement “Why not make all neck muscles pennate?” — the answer is: because not all neck actions need strength. Some need speed and flexibility, so we mix both parallel (for speed) and angled/stronger muscles (for power/stability).
Would you like a short MCQ or table to help lock this in your notes better?
Since the neck does rotation, we use larger pennate muscles for the neck but not wrapping muscles for rotation cuz the head is very heavy and needs force or strength to make the neck turn. Wrapping muscles won’t give it rjay strength needed
Supraspinatous means on top of spinous process of scapula.
Extensor (action) digitorum(attachment which is to digits)
For embalming , the fluid is pushed into the dead body through the femoral artery or internal carotid artery. The fluid is 10% formalin or formaldehyde and mixed with acetone and ethanol or propranol.
Transect means to cut something completely in a transverse section
State the cranial nerves and their functions
If a nerve is sensory, it means it won’t cause any movement of any muscle. If it is motor, it means it is moving a muscle. If both, know which function of the nerve is sensory and which is motor.
If a nerve is sensory, it means it won’t cause any movement of any muscle. If it is motor, it means it is moving a muscle. If both, know which function of the nerve is sensory and which is motor.
Example is optic. You’ll think cuz it’s the eye is moving some eye muscles. well that’s not true. It’s purely sensory so it just sends information from what we see to the brain to make sense of what we see so we recognize the things we see or carries visual info from the eye to the brain.
Cranial Nerves & Their Functions (Sensory vs. Motor + Muscles for Motor Nerves)
1. Olfactory (CN I) – Smell (Sensory)
2. Optic (CN II) – Vision (Sensory)
3. Oculomotor (CN III) – Eye movement (Motor: Superior Rectus, Inferior Rectus, Medial Rectus, Inferior Oblique), pupil constriction (Motor: Sphincter pupillae), lens accommodation (Motor: Ciliary muscle)
4. Trochlear (CN IV) – Eye movement (Motor: Superior Oblique muscle, moves eye down & out)
5. Trigeminal (CN V) – Facial sensation (Sensory: Ophthalmic, Maxillary, Mandibular branches), Chewing (Motor: Masseter, Temporalis, Medial & Lateral Pterygoid muscles)
6. Abducens (CN VI) – Eye movement (Motor: Lateral Rectus muscle, moves eye laterally)
7. Facial (CN VII) – Taste (Sensory: Anterior 2/3 of tongue), Facial expression (Motor: Facial muscles - Orbicularis oculi, Orbicularis oris, Buccinator, etc.), Saliva & tears (Motor: Submandibular, Sublingual, and Lacrimal glands)
8. Vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) – Hearing & balance (Sensory: Cochlea & Vestibular system)
9. Glossopharyngeal (CN IX) – Taste (Sensory: Posterior 1/3 of tongue), Swallowing (Motor: Stylopharyngeus muscle, elevates pharynx), Saliva (Motor: Parotid gland)
10. Vagus (CN X) – Organ sensation (Sensory: Thoracic & Abdominal viscera, pharynx, larynx), Swallowing & voice (Motor: Pharyngeal muscles except Stylopharyngeus, Laryngeal muscles except Cricothyroid), Autonomic control (Motor: Heart, lungs, digestive tract)
11. Accessory (CN XI) – Head turning & shoulder shrugging (Motor: Sternocleidomastoid & Trapezius muscles)
12. Hypoglossal (CN XII) – Tongue movement (Motor: All intrinsic & extrinsic tongue muscles except Palatoglossus)
This should help with remembering both functions and specific muscles! Let me know if you need any clarifications.
Functions of CN V1 (Ophthalmic Branch):
• Sensory Only – No motor function.
• Supplies:
• Forehead, scalp, upper eyelid, and nose
• Cornea (important for the corneal reflex)
• Lacrimal gland (sensory fibers only)
• Sinuses (frontal, ethmoid)
Mnemonic to Remember Trigeminal Branches (V1, V2, V3):
➡️ “Oh, Max, Man!”
• Ophthalmic (V1) → Sensory (Oh - eyes & forehead)
• Maxillary (V2) → Sensory (Max - cheeks & upper jaw)
• Mandibular (V3) → Sensory & Motor (Man - lower jaw & chewing muscles)
Functions of the eye muscles and the nerves that innervates them
Got it! Let’s go deeper with better examples for the Medial Rectus, Superior Oblique, and Inferior Oblique so you can easily understand how they work.
- Medial Rectus (CN III - Oculomotor)
Function: Moves the eye inward (adduction) toward the nose.
✅ Better Examples:
• Reading a book up close – Both eyes move inward to focus on the words.
• Crossing your eyes – Try bringing a pen close to your nose; your medial rectus muscles pull both eyes inward.
• Looking at someone directly in front of you – If a friend is standing right in front of you, your medial rectus keeps both eyes focused straight ahead.
- Superior Oblique (CN IV - Trochlear)
Function: Moves the eye down (depression) and outward (abduction), while also rotating it inward (intorsion).
✅ Better Examples:
• Looking down at your feet while walking downstairs – If your eyes are turned inward, the superior oblique helps move them downward.
• Tilting your head to one side while keeping your vision straight – If you tilt your head left, your right superior oblique helps rotate the eye so your vision stays level.
• Looking down at your phone while it’s slightly to your side – Your superior oblique helps move your eye downward when it’s not directly in front of you.
- Inferior Oblique (CN III - Oculomotor)
Function: Moves the eye up (elevation) and outward (abduction), while also rotating it outward (extorsion).
✅ Better Examples:
• Looking up at the ceiling while lying on your side – If you lie on your right side and look up, your left inferior oblique helps move your eye upward and outward.
• Tilting your head but keeping your vision straight – If you tilt your head to the right, your left inferior oblique helps rotate the eye so your vision remains level.
• Looking at a tall building while slightly turned to the side – If the building isn’t directly in front of you, your inferior oblique helps lift your eye upward while also keeping it slightly outward.
Simple Way to Remember Oblique Muscles
• Superior Oblique: Helps when looking down and slightly outward.
• Inferior Oblique: Helps when looking up and slightly outward.
Would you like me to add a visual trick to help you remember this?
Better Examples to Understand the Difference
1. Looking straight up at the sky → Superior Rectus does most of the work.
2. Looking straight down at your phone → Inferior Rectus is mainly responsible.
3. Looking down while crossing your eyes (e.g., reading close-up text) → Superior Oblique helps.
4. Looking up while crossing your eyes (e.g., rolling your eyes up dramatically) → Inferior Oblique helps.
Why Do We Need Both Rectus and Oblique Muscles?
• The rectus muscles (superior and inferior) are strongest when the eye is looking straight ahead or slightly outward.
• The oblique muscles (superior and inferior) are strongest when the eye is turned inward toward the nose
Got it! Let’s break it down without a table.
The rectus muscles move the eye straight up and down, while the oblique muscles help with angled movements when your eye is turned inward.
• Superior rectus lifts the eye upward when you’re looking straight ahead. If you just look up at the sky, you’re using this muscle.
• Inferior rectus pulls the eye downward when you’re looking straight ahead. When you look down at your phone, this muscle is working.
Now, the oblique muscles act differently because they work best when the eye is turned inward toward the nose.
• Superior oblique moves the eye downward when it’s already turned inward. If you’re reading a book close to your face and look down, this muscle helps. It also slightly rotates the eye inward.
• Inferior oblique moves the eye upward when it’s already turned inward. If you cross your eyes and try to look up, this muscle does the work. It also rotates the eye outward.
So the rectus muscles handle direct up-and-down movement when the eye is in a neutral position, while the oblique muscles handle up-and-down movement when the eye is looking toward the nose.
Does this explanation make it clearer?
Examples of fixatives
Formalin
• Examples of fixatives: formalin, Bouins fluid, glutaraldehyde, paraformaldehyde, osmion tetraoxide.
It looks like you’re referring to the fixation process in histology, where tissue samples are preserved for microscopic examination. Here’s a clearer breakdown:
Fixation in Histology
Fixation is the process of preserving biological tissues to prevent decay and maintain cellular structures for microscopic study.
Key Points
• Temperature for Infiltration: 52°-60°C (used in paraffin embedding).
• Common Fixatives:
• Formalin – A widely used fixative (usually 10% neutral buffered formalin).
• Bouin’s Fluid – Used for preserving delicate tissues, but not ideal for long-term storage.
• Glutaraldehyde – Used mainly for electron microscopy due to its strong cross-linking properties.
• Paraformaldehyde – A polymerized form of formaldehyde, used in immunohistochemistry.
• Osmium Tetroxide – Fixative for electron microscopy, particularly for lipids.
Let me know if you need further clarification!
I think you meant Bouin’s fluid (Bouin’s solution).
Bouin’s Fluid – What is it?
Bouin’s fluid is a fixative used in histology to preserve tissue samples for microscopic examination.
Composition
• Picric acid (saturated aqueous solution) – Helps in preserving delicate structures.
• Formaldehyde (37% solution) – Fixes proteins by cross-linking.
• Acetic acid – Enhances nuclear fixation and prevents excessive hardening.
Uses
• Preserves delicate tissues, especially in embryology and testicular biopsies.
• Enhances staining, making nuclei and cytoplasm more distinct.
• Not ideal for long-term storage, as picric acid can cause tissues to become brittle.
Would you like a comparison with other fixatives?
Image through the objective lens is of what characteristics?
Image through the eyepiece is of what characteristics?
Okay so if I understand you
The objective lens picks the object and magnifies it and it’s real image because it’s directly from the object but it’s inverted cuz it’s not actually a proper image
So the eyepiece lens will now make it upright to make it look like the original object and more magnified and it’s a virtual image cuz that’s not the original object
They’re both convex or converging lens
Great question! The difference happens because of how each lens bends light.
- Objective Lens – Creates an Inverted Image
• The objective lens works like a magnifying glass but positioned farther from the object.
• Light rays from the object pass through the convex lens and converge (meet) to form a real image that is inverted and magnified inside the microscope.
• This is just how convex lenses naturally work when the object is placed beyond the focal point. - Eyepiece Lens – Creates an Erect Virtual Image
• The real image created by the objective lens now becomes the “object” for the eyepiece lens.
• The eyepiece lens is another convex lens, but this time, the real image is within its focal length.
• Instead of forming another real image, the lens bends the light rays outward, making them appear to come from a larger, upright virtual image that your eye sees.
Why does this happen?
• The first lens (objective) follows the rules of real image formation → real, inverted, magnified.
• The second lens (eyepiece) follows the rules of virtual image formation → virtual, erect, magnified.
Think of it like this:
• The objective lens flips the image.
• The eyepiece lens magnifies it and makes it look upright again when you see it.
Let me know if you need a simpler explanation or a diagram!
Let me simplify it for you. A light microscope has two main lenses:
1. Objective lens (First lens)
• The object (specimen) is placed just beyond its principal focus.
• This creates a real, inverted, and magnified image inside the microscope.
2. Eyepiece lens (Second lens)
• This real image becomes the object for the eyepiece.
• The eyepiece lens magnifies it again, creating a virtual, magnified, and upright image that you see.
Why does it sound contradictory?
• The objective lens creates an inverted real image inside the microscope.
• The eyepiece lens then magnifies that image into an upright virtual image that appears larger when you look through the microscope.
Would you like a diagram or another breakdown?
What is a mountant
Give some examples
Why must it be the same refractive index as glass
A mountant is a substance used to embed and preserve a specimen on a microscope slide for examination. It helps to:
• Keep the specimen in place.
• Protect it from drying out or damage.
• Improve optical clarity for better visualization.
Examples of mountants:
• Aqueous mountants (e.g., glycerol, water-based media) – used for temporary mounts.
• Resinous mountants (e.g., Canada balsam, DPX) – used for permanent mounts.
Yes, an ideal mountant should have a refractive index close to that of glass (≈1.518) to:
• Minimize light scattering and refraction, ensuring clear images.
• Improve resolution by allowing light to pass smoothly through the specimen and lens.
• Enhance transparency of the mounted specimen.
For example, Canada balsam and DPX have refractive indices close to glass, making them ideal for permanent mounts.
Embedding in resin or paraffin wax is done during sectioning to provide support and structure for thin slicing. However, after sectioning, the specimen is transferred to a slide for microscopy.
The mountant is added between the specimen and the coverslip for these reasons:
1. Preserves the specimen – Prevents drying, shrinkage, or deterioration.
2. Matches refractive index – Reduces light distortion for a clearer image.
3. Stabilizes the coverslip – Prevents movement or air bubbles that could affect imaging.
4. Enhances contrast – Some mountants improve visibility under the microscope.
Even though the specimen was embedded earlier, the mountant is necessary for long-term preservation and optical clarity during microscopic examination.
Who put a lot of effort in manufacturing microscopes
Who did research in optical principles
Who did research on optical glass
Who made first single lens microscope
Carl zweiss
Ernest abbe
Otto Schott
Anthony Leeuwenhoek
How many times is clearing and dehydration done in the whole tissue processing stage and after tissue processing before you mount?
How are they done and why?
What is absolute alcohol?
Why is alcohol of increasing strength used for dehydration in tissue processing?
State the steps in staining
Yes, during staining, dehydration and clearing are done again, but for a different purpose.
Here’s the sequence in staining:
1. Deparaffinization – Remove paraffin with xylene.
2. Rehydration – Gradually replace xylene with alcohol of decreasing concentrations (100% → 95% → 70%) and then water.
3. Staining – Apply dyes (e.g., Hematoxylin & Eosin).
4. Dehydration – After staining, water is removed again using increasing alcohol concentrations (70% → 95% → 100%).
5. Clearing – Alcohol is replaced with xylene to make the tissue transparent.
6. Mounting – A mountant (e.g., DPX) is applied, and a coverslip is placed to preserve the slide.
So, dehydration and clearing happen twice:
• First in tissue processing (before embedding in paraffin).
• Second after staining (before mounting).
Dehydration and clearing are done twice in histology for different reasons:
1st Dehydration & Clearing (During Tissue Processing)
• Purpose: To remove water from the tissue so it can absorb paraffin wax.
• Why? Paraffin is hydrophobic and won’t penetrate if water is present.
• How? Water is replaced with alcohol (dehydration), then alcohol is replaced with xylene (clearing), which mixes well with paraffin.
2nd Dehydration & Clearing (After Staining)
• Purpose: To remove water and make the stained tissue transparent for mounting.
• Why? The final mountant (like DPX) is not water-soluble, so water must be removed.
• How? Water is replaced with alcohol (dehydration), then alcohol is replaced with xylene (clearing), which mixes well with the mountant.
So, first dehydration/clearing preps tissue for wax, second dehydration/clearing preps tissue for mounting.
Absolute alcohol is 100% pure ethanol with no water content. It is used in histology for complete dehydration of tissues before embedding in wax or resin.
Since ethanol naturally absorbs water from the air, most lab-grade ethanol contains some water (e.g., 95% ethanol). Absolute alcohol is specially treated to remove all water, ensuring efficient dehydration and preventing tissue distortion.
Dehydration must be done with alcohol of increasing gradient (e.g., 50%, 70%, 90%, 100%) to prevent tissue damage and ensure complete water removal.
If tissue is transferred directly to absolute alcohol from water, it can:
1. Cause shrinkage or distortion – Sudden removal of water can collapse delicate structures.
2. Lead to uneven dehydration – Water trapped inside cells may not be removed properly.
3. Create artifacts – Rapid dehydration can form cracks or spaces in the tissue.
Using gradual alcohol concentrations allows water to be slowly replaced, preserving the tissue structure for clear microscopic examination.
Yes, you’re absolutely right! Acidophilic structures are those that have a positive charge (basic in nature) and therefore attract acidic dyes like eosin.
Collagen is acidophilic because it is rich in basic amino acids like lysine and arginine, which bind well to acidic dyes, making it stain pink with eosin in H&E staining.
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are basophilic, meaning they have a negative charge (acidic in nature) and bind to basic dyes like hematoxylin. This is why nuclei stain blue or purple in H&E staining.
