Anatomy GEM 201 History Part Flashcards
What is the smallest organ in the body?
What is the Relationship between anatomy and physiology?
The function of an organ doesn’t depend on its structure true or false?
Anatomy is the science of the dead. True or false and why?
How is Anatomy closely related to pathology?
What is the smallest organ in the body?
Smallest organ is the pineal gland?
Relationship between anatomy and physiology-
Anatomy is the morphological appearance, structure, relationship of one organ to the other, blood supply, innervation,lymphatic drainage
Physiology- function of the structures
All structures are designed for a specific function. The function of the organ or muscle or whatever in the body depends on its structure.
The heart is structured in a way that it has chambers or spaces thru which blood fills and the heart is equipped with muscles that will generate force to expel the blood and valves that will close and open depending on the direction of the blood.
To understand the function of the heart, you can’t ignore its structure
As you’re living-there is anatomy and physiology
A dead person still has the body structures there but the physiology is gone. You can use live bodies for exploratory anatomy
Anatomy is the science of the living not the science of the dead
Anatomy is also closely related to pathology. Anatomy is the normal structures while pathology is the abnormal structures(if the structure becomes abnormal, it affects the function)
Anatomy is called the “science of the living” because it studies the structures of living organisms in their functional and dynamic states. Unlike traditional cadaveric dissection, living anatomy focuses on real-time observations using techniques like medical imaging (MRI, CT, ultrasound) and physical examination. This approach helps in understanding how body structures interact, adapt, and function in real life. It is essential for medical education, improving diagnoses, and advancing healthcare.
Focus on Living Structures:
Anatomy’s core is understanding how the body is built, including cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems, and how these structures relate to each other and to the overall organism’s function.
Studying Living Organisms:
Anatomy also involves studying living organisms, including observing their structures and functions in real-time through various techniques like imaging and physiological studies
History of anatomy:
Records show that inspiration of human body started around 1600 BCE(Simply put, BCE (Before Common Era) is a secular version of BC (before Christ). CE (Common Era) is the secular equivalent of AD (anno Domini), which means “in the year of the Lord” in Latin.6 Nov 2020)
BCE years decrease as time moves forward.
• Example: 500 BCE → 400 BCE → 300 BCE → 200 BCE → 100 BCE → 1 BCE → 1 CE → 2CE,3CE….100 CE
• If someone was born in 500 BCE, they lived before someone born in 100 BCE.
So if someone was born in 500 BCE and they lived for fifty years and died, they would’ve lived from 500BCE to 450BCE. Not from 450BCE to 500BCE.
The Egyptians were dominating then. They were embalming their dead bodies. In the process, they got to know important organs. Hieroglyphics were the record keeping format of Egyptians.
What did the Egyptians believe about the heart?
State four body fluids that they thought the heart was associated with.
They saw that there’s a structure in the body that has all vessels and tubes connected to it and that’s known as the heart now. They said the heart is the center of the body.
Each vessel carries blood, semen and urine and tears. These were associated with the heart
However, they didn’t know what carried sweat and saliva cuz these body fluids don’t pass through big vessels or blood vessels.
Which people saw that at the sides of the head, there are vessels at the left and right. The one at the left carries breath of death . The one of the right carries breath of life
But they didn’t know about the functions of the kidneys even though they knew a bit about the functions of other organs
The Egyptians
Why did the Greeks cherish human body so much and what century did they take over civilization
Around 5th century BcE, the Greeks took over civilization.
They really cherished human body cuz they believed their gods could be half human half god
Because of this, They relied on animals to understand human body since they couldn’t do anything on the human body.
Which Greek medical philosopher discovered the optic nerve and the pharyngo tympanic tube?
- [ ] Alcmaeon croton: he found the optic nerve. (Al sees to remember. And if you remember that he did optic nerve then you’ll remember the Eustachian tube too cuz they’re together in who found it) He discovered connection between the superior aspect of the pharynx and the middle ear which is now called the Eustachian tube. When he found it, it was called pharyngo tympanic tube. (The Eustachian tube is a canal that connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx (upper throat) and helps equalize pressure between the middle ear and the outside environment. Alcmaeon of Croton is believed to have discovered the connection between the pharynx and the middle ear, which was later studied in detail by Bartolomeo Eustachi, after whom the tube is named)
Right after Alcmaeon came, which Greek philosopher believes that the heart is the center of all organs and the heart produces heat?
Empedocles (c. 495–435 BCE), a Greek philosopher and physician. Empedocles(his name starts with E so remember the Egyptians also believed that the heart is the center of all organs) believed that the heart was the center of all the organs in the body. It is the source of heat for the body cuz when someone dies, the blood stops flowing and the body becomes cold. The blood was thought to come from the heart and the heart is the most important organ in the body. He also believed that for you to stay alive, the heart must continuously work. He also did dissection
Right after Empedocles came, which of the Greek philosophers never did any dissection but gathered already existing info into collections?
Who is the father of ancient medicine?
Hippocrates. - [ ] Around 4th century, Hippocrates came. He didn’t do any dissection. He relied on already available info from people who had done the animal dissection. He was a physician. He made a lot of collections including anatomical descriptions and named it as hippocritic corpus that had a lot of articles and volumes. He threw more light on the physiology of some of the structures including the kidneys, the musculoskeletal system. He is the father of ancient medicine and credited with hippocritic oath
Which Greek philosopher coined the term, anatomy ?
(The same person created the spoon which was a sort of surgical instrument)
- [ ] Around latter part of fourth century getting to 3rd century, Diocles of Carystus or medicus (c. 375–300 BCE) was a prominent Greek physician from Carystus in Euboea, often regarded as second only to Hippocrates in reputation and ability. Diocles medicus is Latin for Diocles the physician. Unlike Hippocrates, diocles dived into animal dissection. He discovered many structures. He coined the term anatomy. He designed a tool called diocles spoon or spoon of diocles which was used to remove weapons like arrowhead from wounds. It was a sort of surgical instrument
Remember Danatomy. So the Greek philosophers name starts with D
Which Greek philosopher is the father of comparative medicine
Which Greek philosopher believed the heart was the seat of intelligence?
Which Greek philosopher dissected higher animals such as apes, pigs and chimpanzees
- [ ] Around 3rd to second century, Aristotle came in: he focused most on his study on dissecting higher animals like apes,pigs, chimpanzees . He is the father of comparative anatomy. It is the study of structures based on related organisms or species. He believed the heart was the seat of intelligence cuz when you’re angry, your heart beats faster and any behavior is linked to the heart.
Aristotle Apes. When you remember Ape, you remember comparative anatomy and the heart being the seat of intelligence
So thought process should start like this: when you see comparative anatomy, you’re comparing species to another similar species. What species are similar to humans?? Apes. Which philosopher dissected apes and higher animals?? Aristotle so Aristolteis the father of comparative medicine.
Plus his name starts with A too. So make that association.
Like you did with Gladiators so G for Galen and Pneuma so P for praxagoras
Which Greek philosopher was the first to discover arteries and veins ?
Which Greek philosopher believed that arteries carried air while veins carried blood
- [ ] Praxagoras: dissected animals and first to distinguish between arteries and veins. In terms of physiology, He believed veins carried blood, while arteries carried pneuma (vital air or spirit)—a mistaken idea later corrected by Galen. He believed this cuz when a person dies, you don’t see blood in their arteries but you see blood clots in their veins.
Air is pneuma and it starts with p so the philosophers name starts with p
During which period was dissection of humans finally allowed and which king allowed this to happen ?
Who were the first two people to perform human dissection
- [ ] during the Hellenistic period, particularly under Ptolemy I Soter (r. 305–282 BCE), human dissection became a formalized practice in Alexandria, Egypt.
Dissections were often performed on condemned prisoners
Herophilos who was the master and Erasistratus his apprentice, who studied the nervous system, circulatory system, and organs in greater detail than ever before. So this king asked them specifically to do it. They were the first to dissect human bodies. So the first medical school was established there. School of anatomy.
Where was the first medical school established ?
Who disproved aristotles idea that the heart is the seat of intelligence?
Alexandria,Egypt.
Herophilus due to this was able to disprove Aristotle thing that heart is the seat of intelligence. Herophilus said it’s the brain not the heart. He elaborated more in nervous and musculoskeletal system.
What is vivisection and why was it performed?
Vivisection is the practice of performing surgery or dissections on living organisms to study their anatomy and physiological functions.
Why Did They Perform Vivisection?
• To study organ function in real-time.
• To observe circulation, nerves, and digestion in a living body.
• To advance medical knowledge beyond what was possible with dead bodies.
Which empire was dissection banned in after it had been allowed for some years
Roman Empire.
Who was a physician to the Roman soldiers and gladiators?
How did he learn since there was no human dissection allowed except animal dissection?
Galen
- [ ] Galen came around later part of 2nd century getting to first. At his time, human dissection wasn’t allowed. Either dead or alive. He did animaldisection. He was the physician to the Roman soldiers or gladiators. In his time, Rome conquered Greece and Rome destroyed where the medical school was established and burned everything. The romans banned the dissection of humans. Galen did animal dissection and observation of wounds from the soldiers and gladiators . He was cutting the abdomen and all when they came in with such wounds. So he observed the intestines and ther structures. He had a lot of info about the body and he wrote two anatomical books. Galen wrote two major works on anatomy and physiology:1. “On Anatomical Procedures” – A guide on dissection techniques, mainly using animals, since human dissection was banned in his time. 2. “On the Use of the Parts of the Body” – Explains the function of each organ, based on the idea that every body part has a specific purpose. These books influenced medical science for over a millennium. His info became the curriculum of medical schools for about 1600 years. He made corrections to the earlier description that veins carry blood and arteries carry air. He said both carry blood. Galen made mistakes about the circulatory system. He said it was an open system not a closed one. But it’s actually closed. Yes, Galen believed the circulatory system was an open system, rather than a closed one as we understand today.
So GPA. Galen disproved Praxagoras Air
Who wrote the on the use of the parts of the body of man and the book, on anatomical procedures?
Note this info was used as the basis of medical curriculums at the time
Galen wrote two major works on anatomy and physiology:1. “On Anatomical Procedures” – A guide on dissection techniques, mainly using animals, since human dissection was banned in his time. 2. “On the Use of the Parts of the Body” – Explains the function of each organ, based on the idea that every body part has a specific purpose. These books influenced medical science for over a millennium. His info became the curriculum of medical schools for about 1600 years.
Which physician disproved the theory that arteries carry air and veins carry blood ?
Which physician said the circulatory system is a closed system?
Which physician said the liver makes the blood?
Which physician said the lungs cool the heart that genrâtes heat?
Which physician said the coccyx is made up of five bones
Which said it’s an open system?
Galen.
- [ ] He made corrections to the earlier description that veins carry blood and arteries carry air. He said both carry blood. Galen made mistakes about the circulatory system. He said it was an open system not a closed one. But it’s actually closed. Yes, Galen believed the circulatory system was an open system, rather than a closed one as we understand today.
Galen’s View (Open System)
• He thought blood was continuously produced by the liver and then consumed by the organs rather than circulating in a loop.
• He believed arterial and venous blood were separate, with veins carrying nutritive blood from the liver and arteries carrying pneuma (vital spirit) from the heart.
• He did not recognize the role of the pulmonary circulation (how blood moves through the lungs). He did not understand that blood circulates—he believed it flowed in one direction and disappeared.
Modern View (Closed System)
• William Harvey (1628) later proved that blood circulates in a closed loop, pumped by the heart, and reused rather than constantly produced.
• Blood moves through arteries, veins, and capillaries in a continuous cycle.
Blood leaves the heart through arteries, travels to organs, and returns through veins—it is reused, not lost.• The heart acts as a pump, circulating the same blood over and over.
Galen’s mistake: He thought blood had a one-way flow and was consumed by the organs, instead of recognizing that it circulates in a loop (closed system). He said the liver is important to the circulatory system. It makes the blood, sends it to the heart where the heart pumps to other organs and the organs use the blood so the liver has to create again. He also believe the heart was a source of heat to the body and it constantly contracts and relaxes to expel heat and blood. The lungs are close to the heart so he thought the lungs are to cool the heart since it generates a lot of heat. He said the coccyx is made up of 5 bones. Which is also wrong.
After him, Europe went into dark ages. His medical texts were used.
When Europe went into the dark ages after Galen arose, the Islamic golden era came forth.
Which Islamic philosopher saw the difference between tendons and nerves?
Which saw the coccyx is made up of 3 or 4 not 5?
- [ ] Abu Bakr al-Razi (also known as Al-Razi or Rhazes), a famous Persian. He noted that some of Galen’s descriptions were wrong especially with regards to the spine which Galen said it was made up of 5 coccyx. Abu stated it’s 3 not 5(we know it’s 4 or 3). Abu distinguished between nerves and tendons. Galen thought nerves and tendons were the same since they’re all white in dead bodies. Also because nerves are associated with muscles and tendons are also associated with muscles. Right information (Nerves: Soft, involved in sensation and movement• Tendons: Tough, connect muscles to bones and play a role in movement but don’t conduct signals). He described the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The recurrent laryngeal nerve is a branch of the vagus nerve. (Get clarification from this. Galen or abu?) the recurrent laryngeal nerve The recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) loops into the chest due to evolutionary changes in the development of the circulatory and nervous systems.
Yes, the Circle of Willis, a complex arterial anastomosis at the base of the brain, was first described by Thomas Willis in the 17th century (1664).
Key Facts About the Circle of Willis:• It is a ring-like arterial network located around the base of the brain, near the pons and the cavernous sinus.• It ensures collateral blood flow to the cerebral hemispheres in case of an arterial blockage.• It is formed by the:• Internal carotid arteries
• Anterior cerebral arteries (ACA)
• Anterior communicating artery (AComA)
• Posterior cerebral arteries (PCA)
• Posterior communicating arteries (PComA)
While early anatomists like Galen noted brain circulation, Thomas Willis was the first to fully describe and illustrate this structure, which is why it bears his name.
The Cavernous Sinus is located on both sides of the pituitary gland, while the Circle of Willis is positioned just above it, around the base of the brain.
• The Internal Carotid Artery (ICA) passes through the cavernous sinus before contributing to the Circle of Willis.
LECTURER SAYS ABU RAIZ GAVE DESCRIPTION FIRST TO THIS CIRCLE OF WILLIS AND CAVERNOUS SINUS BEFORE THOMAS WILLIS DID HIS THING. Hmm let me take it like that wai.
Why does the recurrent laryngeal nerve loop?
Why Does It Loop?
• During early embryonic development, the RLN is short and runs directly to the larynx.
• As the embryo grows, the heart and great vessels descend, pulling the RLN downward with them.
• The nerve gets trapped under major arteries and must loop back up to reach the larynx.
Anatomical Pathway
• Right RLN loops around the subclavian artery.
• Left RLN loops around the aortic arch, making its path longer than the right.
Evolutionary Explanation
• In fish, the equivalent nerve takes a direct route to the gills.
• As vertebrates evolved and the heart moved lower in the body, the nerve got “stretched” but remained attached to its original structures.
• This inefficient detour remained because evolution modifies existing structures rather than redesigning from scratch.
This is why the left RLN takes a longer path than the right and why both loop into the chest before reaching the larynx. The Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve (RLN) loops around different structures on each side:• Right RLN → Loops around the right subclavian artery• Left RLN → Loops around the aortic arch, near the ligamentum arteriosum
After looping, both nerves ascend back toward the larynx by traveling in the tracheoesophageal groove and supply the intrinsic muscles of the larynx (except cricothyroid).
Vagus nerve is the tenth cranial nerve. It passes down through the thorax through the neck and has a branch that works in the larynx which is associated with the neck. The nerve is passing at the side of the larynx but it doesn’t give the branch to the larynx directly. It comes to the thorax before it gives a branch to ascend back to the larynx.
Who wrote the canon of medicine?
Who is the father of Islamic medicine
- [ ] Ibn Sina- an Iranian. He’s the father of Islamic medicine. He wrote lots of medical texts including drugs, treatment procedures. Wrote “The Canon of Medicine” (Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb), a five-volume medical encyclopedia that became the standard medical textbook in Europe and the Islamic world for centuries.
Which Islamic philosopher was called the father of the circulatory system and what did he discover about it that made him to be given that name?
Who is the father of modern physiology
State the three main types of capillaries and examples of their use in the body
- [ ] Ibn al nafis- he was particular about the circulatory system. He was able to give a clear description of it. Taking liver out of the system. He described the pulmonary(circulation between lungs and heart) and coronary (circulation around the heart itself) and capillary circulation(capillary circulation refers to the smallest blood vessels (capillaries) that connect the arterioles (smallest arteries) and venules (smallest veins). Types of Capillaries:
• Continuous capillaries – Found in muscles, skin, and the brain (blood-brain barrier).
Continuous capillaries don’t have a break in their endothelial lining which is why they have tight junctions. This makes them selectively permeable and prevents most substances from leaking anyhow which is good for something like the blood brain barrier
• Fenestrated capillaries – Found in kidneys, intestines, and glands (allow more exchange). Fenestrated capillaries have and intact basement membrane and small pores that have high permeability which allows more small things to be exchanged and done faster too. So in the kidneys, this helps them filter blood plasma easily. Their intact basement membrane prevents larger molecules from passing thru.
• Sinusoidal capillaries – they have big irregular spaces called sinusoids for passage of large molecules even cells. Obviously important for the liver which detoxifies the body from drugs and all and the spleen too which traps dead rbcs.
Found in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow (large openings for blood cells and proteins to pass) this was before William Harvey came in. William Harvey is the father of modem physiology. But ibn nafis is the father of circulatory system.
Good question! Even though fenestrated capillaries have an intact basement membrane, they are highly permeable because:
1. Fenestrations (Pores) Bypass the Cell Membrane Barrier
• In continuous capillaries, molecules must pass through or between endothelial cells, which takes more time.
• In fenestrated capillaries, the pores (fenestrations) create direct openings, allowing fluids and small molecules to pass through easily.
2. Basement Membrane is Thin and Selective, Not a Complete Block
• The basement membrane is still there, but it doesn’t completely block movement.
• It acts more like a filter, letting smaller molecules pass while keeping large proteins inside.
3. Higher Water and Solute Movement
• Because of the fenestrations, there’s less resistance to water and solute movement, making fluid exchange faster than in continuous capillaries.
Example: In the kidneys, fenestrated capillaries help with rapid filtration of blood plasma, but still prevent large proteins from escaping.
So, fenestrated capillaries are not as “leaky” as sinusoidal capillaries, but they are much more permeable than continuous capillaries because of the pores.
Let me know if you need a simpler way to remember this!
After the Islamic golden era, which era came obout?
Who was the first physician to dissect a human body after it had been banned for a long time?
The modern era.
Mondino de Luzzi . anatomist first dissected a body after it had been banned for a very long time.
Who wrote the book Anathomia
He wrote the book called anathomia. He gave a vivid description of the body. I’m that time, they wanted drawings to make it easier for them so their texts doesn’t become something abstract when they leave the dissected body
Mondino de Luzzi and “Anathomia”
• Mondino de Luzzi (c. 1270–1326): An Italian physician and anatomist at the University of Bologna.
• “Anathomia” (1316): Authored by Mondino, this work reintroduced systematic human dissection into medical education after a long period of prohibition. It served as a primary anatomical reference in European universities for over two centuries.
What did Leonardo da vinci contribute to anatomy
I’m that time, they wanted drawings to make it easier for them so their texts doesn’t become something abstract when they leave the dissected body. Leonardo Da vinci was trained as an anatomist by adreas verocio to make the illustrations. Leonardo da vinci gave clear description of the spine, muscles and bones. He brought anatomical sections and planes. His early work focused on the skeleton and muscles, progressing to internal organs like the brain, heart, and lungs.
People before da vinci were interested in normal structures but he was interested in pathological conditions so he gave descriptions and drawings of such conditions such as liver cirrhosis and atherosclerosis.
So illustrations,anatomical planes and sections and then drawing pathological conditions like atherosclerosis and liver cirrhosis.
Leonardo da Vinci was trained by Andrea del Verrocchio, a renowned Florentine artist and sculptor.
Verrocchio focused on art and sculpture, but his workshop exposed Leonardo to human and animal anatomy.
Who was the first to engage in public dissection?
Who is the father of modern anatomy?
Last guy who turned this around was Andreas Vesalius. He challenged Galen’s dogma. He did public dissection where he put Galen’s work side by side to his and read it to the public for them to meet the flaws and finally they saw the flaws . Andreas is regarded as the father of modern anatomy. His work formed the basis of greys anatomy
Then later, there was advancement in technology and Andreas saw that the body wasn’t just organs but cells and
Cell Discovery (Not Vesalius)
• Vesalius focused on gross anatomy (organs, muscles, bones), but the discovery that the body is made of cells and tissues came much later, with advancements in microscopy.• Robert Hooke (1665): Discovered cells using a microscope and coined the term “cell” in his book Micrographia.• Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann (1838-1839): Proposed cell theory, stating that all living organisms are made of cells.
So, while Vesalius revolutionized anatomy, he did not discover cells and tissues—that came with the invention of the microscope about a
What book did andreas Vesalius write?
Published De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543): This was a groundbreaking anatomical textbook with detailed illustrations, revolutionizing the study of human anatomy.
• Laid the Foundation for Modern Anatomy: His work became the foundation for later anatomical studies, influencing texts like Gray’s Anatomy (first published in 1858).
