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FunMed > Anatomy: Axial Skeleton and Nervous System > Flashcards

Anatomy: Axial Skeleton and Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two main systems in the nervous system?

A

The nervous system is structurally divided into main two systems: the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS is composed of all the nerves that branch off from the CNS such as the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves.

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2
Q

What are the two divisions of the PNS and what do they innervate?

A

Somatic nervous system (motor function of skeletal muscles and sensory function of skin)
Visceral nervous system (motor function of organs and glands and sensory function of organs)

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3
Q

What are the two divisions of the motor innervation to the organs and glands?

A

Sympathetic (fight or flight)

Parasympathetic (rest and digest)

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4
Q

What are the components of a neuron?

A

Dendrite: receive signals from other neurons. At the end of these projections are the synapses, where information is transferred.
Cell body: contains the cell nucleus and connects the dendrites (which receive information from other neurons) and the axon (which sends information to other neurons).
Cell nucleus: found within the cell body or soma.
Axon terminal: consists of long, slender nerve fibres that conduct electrical signals to a nerve synapse.

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5
Q

How is a sensory neuron different to a motor neuron?

A

Cell body is at end of axon in motor neuron, but is in middle of axon in sensory neuron.

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6
Q

What is the brain? What does folding of the cerebral cortex create?

A

The brain is made up of billions of neurons and is a central component of the nervous system, a network that transmits signals to and from different parts of the body, and regulates involuntary and voluntary actions.
Folding of the cerebral cortex creates sulci (singular: sulcus) and gyri (singular: gyrus) which separate brain regions.

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7
Q

What are the different parts of the brain?

A

Frontal lobe
Precentral gyrus (part of the frontal lobe and lying immediately anterior to the central sulcus, this is the site of the primary motor cortex)
Central sulcus (a prominent landmark of the brain. It separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe and the primary motor cortex from the primary somatosensory cortex)
Postcentral gyrus (part of the parietal lobe and lying immediately posterior to the central sulcus, this is the site of the primary somatosensory cortex)
Parietal lobe
Lateral sulcus (also called “Sylvian fissure” or “lateral fissure”. This sulcus separates the frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobes. The insular cortex lies deep within the lateral sulcus)
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe
Cerebellum

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8
Q

What is the brainstem and what are its three components?

A

The brainstem is the most distal part of the brain and is continuous with the spinal cord. It is composed of three components: the midbrain (1); the pons (2) and the medulla oblongata (3). Each of these components has its own unique structure and function. Cranial nerves III to XII emerge from the brainstem.

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9
Q

Where is the spinal cord? What does it pass through and what is it covered by?

A

The spinal cord extends from the medulla oblongata to the lumbar regions. It passes through the bony vertebral canal and like the brain it is covered by the meninges and surrounding cerebrospinal fluid.

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10
Q

What are the three layers of the meninges?

A

Surrounding the central nervous system are 3 protective layers. From the outer most layer to the inner most layer these include the dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater.

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11
Q

When performing a lumbar puncture, where is the needle inserted?

A

When performing a lumbar puncture, the needle is inserted into the space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater (the subarachnoid space).

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12
Q

When performing an epidural, where is the needle inserted?

A

When administering an epidural, the needle is inserted into the space between the vertebrae and dura mater (the epidural space).

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13
Q

What is grey matter of the spinal cord made up of?

A

Mainly composed of neuronal cell bodies and unmyelinated axons.

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14
Q

What is grey matter of the spinal cord made up of?

A

Mainly composed of myelinated axons.

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15
Q

What is the arrangement of which and grey matter within the spinal cord?

A

In the spinal cord, white matter surrounds the centrally distributed grey matter.

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16
Q

What is the arrangement of which and grey matter within the brain?

A

In the brain, white matter is found in deeper areas with surrounding grey matter. Other grey matter structures, such as the basal ganglia, lie deeper with the grey matter.

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17
Q

What does the centrally located grey matter of the spinal cord consist of?

A

The centrally located grey matter of the spinal cord. It consists of a dorsal horn (located here) and a ventral horn.

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18
Q

What does the white matter form in the spinal cord?

A

The white matter that is surrounding the grey matter. The white matter forms the ascending and descending tracts that carry information to and from the CNS.

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19
Q

What are dorsal rootlets?

A

The sensory information carried through the dorsal root branches into dorsal rootlets to enter the spinal cord.

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20
Q

What are ventral rootlets?

A

The motor information carried to the ventral root exits the spinal cord via the ventral rootlets.

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21
Q

What is the dorsal root?

A

The dorsal root contains sensory (afferent) fibres from the skin, subcutaneous and deep tissues and viscera.

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22
Q

What is the ventral root?

A

The ventral root contains motor (efferent) fibres that carry motor innervation to skeletal muscles.

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23
Q

What is the dorsal root ganglion?

A

The cell bodies of sensory neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglion.

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24
Q

What is the spinal nerve?

A

A spinal nerve is a mixed nerve consisting of both motor and sensory information.

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25
Q

What is the pathway from the spinal nerve to the spinal cord and back?

A 
Spinal nerve
Dorsal root ganglion
Dorsal root
Dorsal rootlets
Grey matter
Ventral rootlets
Ventral root
Spinal nerve
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26
Q

What are efferent and afferent nerves? Where do they enter and exit the spinal cord?

A

–
Information has to either exit the spinal cord to send signals to peripheral tissues or information from peripheral tissues needs to be carried into the spinal cord. This is done via afferent (green) and efferent (red) fibres.
Sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) fibres enter and exit the cord via rootlets that arise from both the posterior and anterior aspects of the spinal cord.

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27
Q

What do the ventral and dorsal rootlets do? What do the merge to become?

A

Ventral (anterior) rootlets carry motor information out of the spinal cord (i.e. they contain efferent fibres) while the dorsal (posterior) rootlets carry sensory information into the spinal cord (i.e. they contain afferent fibres). Several dorsal rootlets merge together to form the dorsal root, while several ventral rootlets similarly converge to form the ventral root.

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28
Q

What is the dorsal root ganglion? What do these become afterwards?

A

The dorsal root ganglion is a collection of cell bodies found in the dorsal root. The ventral root does not contain a ganglion. Ganglia are only found where neuron cell bodies are outside the CNS.
Distal to the dorsal root ganglion, the fibres of the ventral and dorsal root merge together and pass through the dura to become the spinal nerve. Spinal nerves contain both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) fibres and are therefore a mixed nerve.

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29
Q

What are the ascending tracts?

A

The ascending tracts transport sensory information from the body to the brain. There are three orders of neurons that carry this information to the brain.

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30
Q

What are the three orders of neurons in the ascending tract?

A

The first order neurons conducts impulses from peripheral receptors to the spinal cord, where is will synapse with second order neurons in the spinal cord or brainstem. The second order neurons will carry impulses up the spinal cord to the brain, usually the thalamus. The third order neurons carry information from the thalamus to the primary sensory cortex.

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31
Q

What are the descending tracts?

A

The descending tracts transport motor information from the brain to the skeletal muscles. There are two order neurons that carry this information to the skeletal muscles.

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32
Q

What are the two orders of neurons in the descending tracts?

A

The first order neuron, also known as the upper motor neuron, descends from the brain to the spinal cord or brainstem. It will synapse with the second order neuron, also known as the lower motor neuron in the grey matter of the spinal cord or brainstem. The lower motor neuron will then travel to the skeletal muscles.

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33
Q

Which part of the spinal cord transmits information from the spinal cord to the extremities of the body?

A

Ventral roots

34
Q

Which functional division of the nervous system would be responsible for the physiological changes seen during exercise (e.g., increased heart rate and sweating)?

A

Autonomic

35
Q

What is a spinal nerve?

A

A mixed nerve and contains sensory and motor fibres.

36
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

A

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

37
Q

What type of information is transmitted through the ventral roots?

A

Motor information

38
Q

What is the dorsal root ganglion?

A

It contains cell bodies of sensory neurons. These are cell bodies of first order neurons.

39
Q

What are the types of spinal nerves?

A 
Spinal nerves are nerves originating from the spinal cord that contain sensory and motor neurons. Each spinal nerve travels to a specific region / segment of the body. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves and are named according to their origin:
8 pairs cervical (C1-C8)
12 pairs thoracic (T1-T12)
5 pairs lumbar (L1-L5)
5 pairs sacral (S1-S5)
1 pair coccygeal (C0)
40
Q

Where does the spinal cord extend from and where does it terminate? What are its features along its length?

A

The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the L1/L2 vertebrae where it terminates as the conus medullaris (medullary cone). A thin thread called filum terminale extends from the tip of the conus medullaris all the way to the 1st coccygeal vertebra (Co1) and anchors the spinal cord in place. Below L1/L2 the spinal nerves are bunched together as the cauda equina. Along its length, the spinal cord has two defined enlargements; a cervical enlargement and a lumbosacral enlargement.

41
Q

Why are there two well-defined enlargements along the length of the spinal cord?

A

They provide innervation to the limbs.

42
Q

What is a dermatome?

A

A dermatome is an area of skin that is supplied by a single spinal nerve and these nerves transmit sensations, such as pain, from the skin to the CNS. Dermatomes have a segmented distribution throughout the body. The exact dermatome pattern can vary from person to person and some overlap between neighbouring dermatomes may also occur.

43
Q

A patient is experiencing numbness across the lateral aspect of their shoulder below the clavicle, what spinal level do you think the injury is at?

A

C5

44
Q

Where on the hand would you test dermatome C8?

A

Little finger (5th digit)

45
Q

What do spinal nerves contribute to the formation of?

A

Spinal nerves contribute to the formation of plexi (singular: plexus).

46
Q

What is a plexus?

A

A plexus is a network of nerves that intermingle and become redistributed so that the peripheral nerve leaving the plexus contains fibres from multiple spinal nerve roots. Each limb muscle receives motor innervation from multiple spinal nerve roots.

47
Q

How many plexus groups branch off the spinal cord?

A

There are four main plexus groups. These are found in the cervical, brachial, lumbar and sacral regions of the spinal cord.

48
Q

What is the arrangement of nerves in the thoracic region?

A

Spinal nerves in the thoracic region are arranged segmentally and generally do not contribute to the plexi.

49
Q

What plexus supplies the upper limbs?

A

The brachial plexus

50
Q

What plexus supplies the lower limbs?

A

The lumbosacral plexus

51
Q

What are the features of the somatic nervous system?

A

Sensory impulses from the skins are relayed to the CNS via this nervous system
Mainly acts on skeletal muscle
Responsible for voluntary control of body movements

52
Q

What are the features of the visceral nervous system?

A

Acts on glands
Sensory information comes from the internal organs
Responsible for the involuntary control of bodily functions
Acts on cardiac and smooth muscle
Autonomic nervous system is the motor part of this system

53
Q

What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

A

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates body homeostasis. It in involuntary control of body processes such as breathing, heart beat and digestive processes. It can be divided into the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. Generally, the sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations i.e. the fight or flight response. Whereas the parasympathetic nervous system controls body processes during ordinary situations i.e. the rest and digest response.

54
Q

What regions do the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems emerge from?

A

The sympathetic nervous system emerges from thoracolumbar regions and parasympathetic emerges from from craniosacral regions.

55
Q

What are the effects of the sympathetic nervous system?

A 
Increases blood flow to skeletal muscles
Dilates pupils
Increases heart rate
Inhibits stomach, pancreas and intestines
Inhibits urination
Stimulates ejaculation (in males)
56
Q

What are the effects of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A 
Stimulates urination
Stimulates saliva production
Stimulates erection (in males)
Constricts pupils
Stimulates stomach, pancreas and intestines
Slows heart rate
57
Q

What are the 4 main bones of the neurocranium?

A

Sphenoid
Occipital
Temporal
Frontal

58
Q

What are sutures? What do they do?

A

Between the different bones of the skull are fibrous joints, called sutures. These sutures limit movement between the bones and tightly adhere the bones together.

59
Q

What are the names of the cranial sutures?

A 
Coronal suture
Pterion
Squamous suture
Lambdoid suture
Sagittal suture
60
Q

Which bones are in the neurocranium (protect the brain)?

A

Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal

61
Q

Which bones are in the viscerocranium (facial skeleton)?

A 
Vomer
Mandible
Maxilla
Palatine
Zygomatic
Lacrimal
Inferior conchae
62
Q

Which bones are in both the neurocranium and the viscerocranium?

A

Ethmoid

Sphenoid

63
Q

What are the cranial fossae?

A

On the internal aspect of the skull there are 3 regions, called the anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossa.

64
Q

What are the foramina?

A

The skull contains many foramina (holes) which allow the passage of structures, such as blood vessels and nerves into and out of the skull.

65
Q

What is the cribiform plate?

A

The cribiform plate is part of the ethmoid bone, and has lots of tiny perforations.

66
Q

What is the optic canal?

A

This is the hole for the optic nerve to pass through.

67
Q

What is the foramen ovale?

A

Literally means oval hole. This creates a passageway for a nerve.

68
Q

What is the jugular foramen?

A

This allows passage of the internal jugular vein

69
Q

What is the foramen rotundum?

A

Literally means round hole.

70
Q

What is the foramen mangum?

A

This is the largest foramen on the base of the skull and allows the passage of the brainstem.

71
Q

Which suture separates the frontal and parietal bones?

A

Coronal suture
The coronal suture runs in the coronal plane (dividing the body into an anterior and posterior). Coronal means crown, and so is were you wear a crown (on top of your head) and divides the frontal and parietal bones.

72
Q

Which bone houses the inner ear?

A

Temporal
The external acoustic meatus can be seen on the external surface of the temporal bone, this is the entrance to the middle and inner ear, which are located within the temporal bones.

73
Q

Which bone links the facial skeleton to the neurocranium?

A

Sphenoid

74
Q

What is the sternum? What are its different parts?

A

The sternum is the breastbone. It is made up of 3 parts. Superiorly is the manubrium, which articulates with the clavicles. The body of the sternum articulates with the costal cartilages of the ribs. Between the manubrium and the body is a prominent joint, the sternal angle (or angle of Louis) this forms a lump you can palpate on your chest. The xiphoid process is a small cartilaginous projection at the inferior aspect of the sternum. This often ossifies with age.

75
Q

How many pairs of ribs are there?

A

12

76
Q

What are the true ribs?

A

Ribs 1-7 attach to the sternum directly via their costal cartilage. These ribs are termed true ribs.

77
Q

What is the costal margin?

A

The boarder created by the costal cartilages of ribs 8-10 joining the 7th costal cartilage is called the costal margin. This is palpable.

78
Q

What are false ribs?

A

Ribs 8-10 attach to the sternum via the 7th costal cartilage. They are therefore called false ribs.

79
Q

What are floating ribs?

A

Ribs 11 and 12 do not attach to the sternum and so are called floating ribs.

80
Q

How many bones make up the vertebral column?

A

The vertebral column is typically made up of 33 Individual vertebral bones, articulating together to protect the spinal cord whilst allowing for movement of the column.

81
Q

What are the five regions of the vertebrae?

A

For descriptive purposes the vertebrae are divided into 5 regions;

1) Cervical (7 bones)
2) Thoracic (12 bones)
3) Lumbar (5 bones)
4) Sacral (5 bones, fused)
5) Coccygeal (4 bones)

82
Q

What

A

Cervical (rounded with a large foramen)
Thoracic (looks like a giraffe)
Lumbar (looks like an octopus)
Sacral (has wings)

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