Anatomy - All Exams Flashcards
What is the axial skeleton?
- skull
- vertebral column
- rib cage and sternum
- 12 ribs, all but two attached to sternum via hyaline cartilage
What is the appendicular skeleton?
Bones of limbs attached to trunk by girdle.
Arms - clavicle and scapula
Legs - hip bone
What is the medical term for a depression?
fossa
What is the medical term for a groove?
Sulcus/groove
What is a spine?
Thorn-like, or ridge dividing a surface into 2 large parts
What is a tubercle/Tuberosity?
Slight swelling or blunt projection
What is a crest?
ridge-like projection
What is the medical term for a projection (not specifically blunt or ridge-like)?
process
What is the medical term for a hole?
foramen
What are the 3 cardinal planes?
- Sagittal (verticle) = parallel to sagittal suture of skull. Divides body into right and left.
a) midsagittal (exactly middle)
b) parasagittal (not exact middle) - Coronal Plane (verticle) = parallel to coronal suture.
Divides body into front and back. - Transverse - horizontal plan
What are the three axis of the body?
- Longitudinal Axis = head to tail.
Intersection of coronal and sagittal planes. - Sagittal Axis = back to front.
Intersection of sagittal and transverse planes. - Transverse Axis = Side to Side
Intersection of coronal and transverse planes.
What colours are Haematoxylin and Eosin?
H = basophilic, blue
E = eosinophilic, pink
What processes are involved in preparing slides?
- Collection of Tissue. Freshness is important or decomposition/autolysis.
- Fixation - reduces risk of decomposition or autolysis. Tissue treated, usually with formalin. Also makes tissue firm.
- Dehydration - increasing strengths of ethyl alcohol. Shrinkage.
- Replacing Alcohol by paraffin solvent, usually toluene. Removes natural fat.
- Paraffin infiltration
- Embedding - solidified rapidly in plastic mould = blocks of paraffin
- Microtomy - cut block. Tears, scratches.
- Spreading and drying. Wrinkles or folds.
- Staining - H&E
What are the four types of tissue?
- Epithelium
- Connective
- Muscle
a) skeletal
b) smooth
c) cardiac - Nervous
What are some of the main functions of epithelium?
- Barrier. Compactly arranged cells on basement membrane (non-epithelium).
- Active transport (i.e. absorption)
- Simple diffusion
- Secretion
- Replacement of lost cells
Which junctions adhere cells together?
Adhering Junctions. Quite literally just stuck together.
Which junctions seal off intercellular space?
Occluding/Tight junctions
Kind of wavy looking
Which junctions allow communication between cells?
Gap junctions. Like a tube form one to another.
What is a desmosome?
A cell structure specialized for cell-to-cell adhesion. A type of junctional complex, they are localized spot-like adhesions randomly arranged on the lateral sides of plasma membranes.
What is the term given for a single layer of cells?
simple, ie vs stratified/compound
What are the different types of epithelial cell shapes?
- squamous (squashed nuclei)
- Cuboidal
- Columnar
They can be simple of squamous, but columnar can be pseudostratified.
How are ducts formed and what are their parts?
They are a type of epithelial specialization, where cells form canalization (hollow tube).
Part of the tube specializes to become ‘secretory’ (bottom part).
Secretions are carried to the surface by a ‘duct’ (top part).
What is the characteristic of endocrine glands?
The duct part disappears.
What is a compound gland?
Duct/secretory portion can both be lobed.
Lobe = group of lobules surrounded by connective tissue.
What are the main function of connective tissue?
- Connects and binds
- nutritional support
- mechanical strength support
- transmits and resists force
- more
What are the main components of matrix?
- Fibers (mostly proteins).
a) Collagen
b) Elastic
c) Reticular Fibers - Ground Substance.
What are the main features of collagen?
- White
- thicker bundles, generally wavy
- resists stretching when straight
- many biochemical types
- tendons are predominantly collagen, and their resistance makes them able to transfer force.
What are the main features of elastic?
- yellowish
- Fibers or sheets (laminae)
- if fibers, then thin, straight, branches.
What are the main features of Reticular Fibers?
- actually a type of collagen
- invisible with H&E
- very thin, network
- support in highly cellular tissues
What are the main features of Ground substance?
- Protein-carbohydrate complexes
- Difficult to see in H&E, and is water soluble
- Variable amount in different types of connective tissue.
- If there are loosely arranged fibers, there is more ground state than if there are tightly packed fibers.
What are the active and inactive principle cell types for fribrous tissue, cartilage and bone?
- fibrous tissue: fibroblast/fibrocyte
- cartilage: chondroblast/chondrocyte
- Bone: octeoblast/osteocyte
How are fibers arranged?
- Loose
- Dense - sheets, strips, chords. Can be classes as irregular or regular. Regular are laid down in response to forces by irregular usually indicates forces in different directions.
What are the main properties of loose CT?
- allows stretch until straightened, then resists force
- elastic fibers ensure restoration
- Some movement between connected parts
- Acts as a medium for nerves and blood vessels
- Ground substance allows passage of nutrients, waste, oxygen etc.
- Defense related cells reside in loose CT
- Often extremely loose which allows considerable movement
What are the functions of mast cells in loose CT?
- Granules with vasodilators, released if tissue is injured.
- Blood vessels dilate to increase blood supply
- Increase permeability of basal wall so there is extra fluid in tissue
- Increased blood supply means redness and warmth, and the increased fluid leads to swelling.
What are types of dense CT?
- Deep fascia – though ct sheets which act as envelopes for muscles etc
- Tendons – strong chords for transmitting muscle force to bones.
- Ligaments
- Dermis (part of skin)
What is adipose tissue?
- usually modified loose ct.
- Some cells (adipocytes) accumulate fat
- Groups of such fat laden cells form ‘lobules’ (separated by fibrous tissue partitions)
- Adipocyte formation – coalescing fatty droplets
What are the distinguishing features of cardiac muscle?
- Single, central nucleus
- striated
- involuntary
- autoarythmic
- short cells
- fibers branch and are interconnected by intercalated discs.
What are the distinguishing features of smooth muscle?
- Single, central nucleus
- NOT striated
- involuntary
- small, elongated, spindle shaped cells
- nerve regulated (i.e. speed) but also auto-rythmic
What are the distinguishing features of skeletal muscle?
- Many (peripheral) nuclei
- striated
- voluntary
What are the differences between axons and dendrites?
Axons transmit info.
Dendrites receive info.
Dendrites are usually short
and close to body, while axons are long.
What is the resting membrane potential or a neuron?
-70mV
What characteristic makes neuron processes conduct nerve impulses faster?
myelin sheaths
What cells form myelin sheaths?
- Schwann cells in PNS
- Oligodendroglia in CNS
What are the gaps in myelin sheaths?
Nodes of ranvier
What are glial cells (neuroglia)?
Glial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia, are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems.
What is the input and output signals of the nervous system?
- Input = sensory = afferent
- Output = motor = effertent
What is the break down of nerves?
CNS:
- 12 cranial nerves
PNS: 31 pairs
- 8 cervical
- 12 thoracic
- 5 lumbar
- 5 sacral
- 1 coccygeal
What is grey matter?
Nuclei - mass of neuronal bodies
What are the main parts of the brainstem?
- Cerebrum (top brain)
- Midbrain
- Pons
- Medulla oblongata
- Cerebellum (mini brain)
What is the outer layer of the cerebrum?
The cortex = grey matter
What are the two physical features of the cortex?
- sulci (grooves)
- gyri (folds)
What is the outer layer of the cerebellum?
Cerebral Cortex = white matter
What is the physical feature of the cerebral cortex?
Folio = parallel fine folds
What are the components of the brain stem?
- Midbrain
- Pons
- Medulla Oblongata
What are the components of the hind brain?
- Pons
- Medulla Oblongata
How many cranial nerves does the brainstem have?
10/12
How is grey/white matter of spinal chord arranged?
Grey on inside and white on outside
What are the main features of the spinal chord/nerves?
- Motor nerves emerge from anterior (ventral root).
- Sensory nerves emerge from posterior (‘dorsal’ root)
- The dorsal root has a ganglion due to neuron bodies
- with the Autonomic NS, the ganglion is close to the chord
- grey matter has two horns on either side, and an intermediate or ‘lateral’ horn in the thoracic part
How are spinal/cranial nerves names?
Spinal = first letter of region plus number Cranial = roman numerals
What is the different between ganglion and a nucleus?
ganglion is outside the CNS but neuclei are inside the CNS. They are both neuron bodies.
What are sensory nuclei?
nuclei that receive sensory info and are in the CNS.
Sensory nerve fibers have their bodies in ganglion. The axons enter the CNS and hand over this info to the next neurons. . These neuron bodies form the nucleus of a sensory nerve.
What do axons form together?
Bundle
What are tracts in the nervous system?
Bundle of functionally similar axons within the CNS. They are ‘ascending’ or ‘descending’ based on direction of information flow. They start in neuron bodies and terminate were the axons end, usually synapsing with other neurons. Tracts may cross to the opposite side. Each time you reach a ganglion/nucleus, you start a new tract
What are the physical features of the ANS?
- controls viscera
- motor and sensory info
- do get higher control from various parts and centres in the brain (notably – hypothalamus).
- Both SNS and PNS have two neurons, ganglion, preganglionic fiber (finely myelinated) and postganglionic fiber (non-myelinated)
What are the physical features of the PNS? (Para)
- ganglia closer to organs
- craniosacral outflow
What are the physical features of the SNS (Sympathetic)?
- preganglionic fibers have neuron bodies attached to thoracic and lumbar spinal cord – thoracolumbar outflow.
- Ganglia near vertebral column
- Abdominal organs actually have ganglia near the organs (they are the exceptions)
- Head and neck – three neck ganglia
- Pelvic organs – the lumbar segments actually have sacral ganglia.
What sensations occur with visceral afferents?
NORMAL:
- Stretch
- pressure
- fullness
WARNING:
- pressure
- stretch
- ischaemia
NEVER TRAVELS WITH SNS, ONLY PNS
What are bundles of collagen indicative of?
Dense connective tissue - very pink.
What is keratin?
Dead epithelial cells characterized by lack of nucleus on surface.
Naming eg: Keratinised, stratified, squamous epithelium.
What are nerves stained with and what do they look like?
Osmium
White circles with black perimeter. We only see the myelin sheath stained black.
What would epithelium without much keratin look like?
Red. I.e. inside of lip - blood vessels near epithelium.
What is responsible for cartilage’s ability to resist compression?
Ground substance. Contains glycosaminoglycans?
What causes lacunae?
During processing, cells shrink more than the surrounding matrix.
What are the cavities around cells in lacunae called and what colour is it?
Territorial matrix - bluish if fresh.
What are the 3 main types of cartilage?
- Hyaline cartilage
- White fibrocartilage
- Elastic Fibrocartilage
What does hyaline cartilage look like?
Glassy pink, fibbers not visible (but they are there). Avascular
What is the fibrous membrane covering hyaline cartilage and what is its purpose?
Perichondrium
- carries blood vessels
- consists of outer fibrous layer and inner chrondrogenic layer
What is the principle cell in hyaline cartilage and how is it formed?
Chondroblasts. They are from the condrogenic cells in the deeper part of the perichondrium.
They grow by apposition AND interstitial growth.
They produce matrix
What is apposition in cartilage?
Chondroblasts deposit collagen/matrix on surface of pre-existing cartilage.
Causes an increase in width.
What is interstitial growth in cartilage?
CHRONDROCYTES divide and secrete matrix from within their lacunae.
Causes an increase in length.
What is a sign of interstitial growth?
Isogenous groups = cell nests
Cells are dividing, therefore interstitial growth
Where is white fibrocartilage?
- between vertebrae
- within joints
- in tendons (ligaments)
STRONGEST CARTILAGE
What does white fibrocartilage look like?
Pink bundles of collagen, not glassy.
There are dense collagen fibres oriented in the direction of functional stresses.
No perichondrium.
Where is hyaline cartilage found?
- Ribs
- Nose
- Larynx
- Trachea
Where is Elastic Fibrocartilage found?
- external ear
- epiglotis
- larynx
What is the visual difference between dense connective tissue and fibrocartilage?
Both look similar due to bundles of collagen.
BUT in dense CT we would see flat nuclei as they are squashed by collagen. In cartilage, they are in lacunae and are therefore round.
What is the difference between elastic cartilage and hyaline cartilage?
With elastic, you can actually see the elastic fibres. Otherwise it is similar to hyaline.
What gives bone a mineralised matrix?
Microcrystals = calcium compound deposited along collagen fibbers at regular intervals.
What is the principle cell of bone?
Osteoblasts - produces all components of matrix.
Where are osteocytes?
In lacunae
What are the cells that break up bone?
osteoclasts
What is a lamelar structure?
- layers of collagen
- parallel fibers in each layer
What allows resistance in different planes in bone?
many lamella packed together with fivers in different directions
What is an osteon?
Tubular lamellae arranged around blood vessels. Max 6-8 layers, but usually 3/4.
What is the canal in an osteon and what was does it run?
Haversian Canal
Which canals run transversely across bone?
Volkmann’s Canals (not in an osteon).
What are the fine communications between lacunae?
Canaliculi
They are the cracks that lead to the black hole (the lacuna with the osteocyte in it)
What is the periosteum and endosteum?
Periosteum: a dense layer of vascular connective tissue enveloping the bones except at the surfaces of the joints.
Endosteum = lines the inner surface of all bone
What are the names of the outer portion, inner portion and hollow in bone?
- Outer shell = Cortical (Compact) bone
- Inner = Cancellous (spongy) bone
- Hollow = medullary cavity (contains bone marrow)
What are the three types of lamella?
- circumferential lamellae (outer and inner)
- interstitial lamellae (remnants of old osteons)
- concentric lamellae (around osteons). Can just call it osteons.
How do the flat bones in the skull form?
Intermembranous ossification
Osteoblasts develop from mesodermal cells. (NOT CARTILAGE)
Process begins at centreS of ossification. Fibrous CT also develops (periosteum between bones).
Then there is reduction in fibrous tissue and interlocking of bones.
What are the soft areas in a baby’s skull?
fontanelles
How does bone form from cartilage?
Endochondral ossification.
Forms in hyaline cartilage (which are mesodermal masses).
One primary centre of ossification, which spreads. After birth, there are secondary entries.
As it grows, parts of the cartilage die and are replaced by bone.
What is the shaft of the bone?
Diaphysis
What is the epiphysis?
End of a long bone, any part formed by secondary centres.
Long bones often have compound epiphyses, made of more than one secondary centre.
What is the junctional region between epiphysis and diaphysis?
metaphysis
It contains the growth plate where bone grows during childhood
What is the growth plate?
- Epiphyseal plate in children
- Epiphyseal line in adults (eventually disappears)
What is the fusion/union of adjacent bones?
Synostosis = epiphyseal fusion
What is the site of fertilisation?
Ampulla - in uterine tube