Anatomy Flashcards
Histology is the study of
Tissues
The plasma membrane separates the
intracellular fluid inside cells from the extracellular fluid outside.
all body cells are surrounded by a selectively permeable
plasma membrane
Acromial area is
the tip of the shoulder
Axillary area is
armpit
The dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions which are
Cranial cavity and vertebral cavity
Both the brain and the spinal cord are covered by membranes called Both the brain and the spinal cord are covered by membranes called
meninges.
The more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities is the
ventral body cavity
The ventral body cavity has two subdivisions which are
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity
The ventral body cavity houses internal organs collectively called the
viscera or visceral organs
The medial cavity of the thorax containing the heart, great vessels, thymus, and parts of the trachea, bronchi, and esophagus is the
mediastinum
The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into lateral _____ cavities (ploo´ral), each enveloping a lung, and the medial _____
pleural and mediastinum
A _______occurs when part of the stomach slides through the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity, allowing stomach acid to cause heartburn (which is actually irritation of the esophagus, not the heart)
hiatal hernia
The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains are covered by a thin, double-layered membrane, the _______ it is the moist membrane found in closed ventral body cavities.
serosa or serous membrane
The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is called the
parietal serosa (pah-ri´ĕ-tal; parie = wall)
The part of the double-layered membrane that lines the outer surfaces of organs within the ventral body cavity.
Visceral serosa
the ___ serosa is never exposed but is always fused to the cavity wall.
parietal
the serous membranes are separated not by air but by a thin layer of lubricating fluid, called
serous fluid
barely present, slitlike ____ is filled with serous fluid.
serous cavity
The ____of an object is equal to the actual amount of matter in the object, and it remains constant wherever the object is.
Mass
is defined as the capacity to do work, or to put matter into motion
energy
The energy of motion or movement, e.g., the constant movement of atoms, or the push given to a swinging door that sets it into motion.
Kinetic Energy
Stored or inactive energy.
Potential Energy
Energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances.
Chemical energy
Energy formed by the movement of charged particles, e.g., across or along cell membranes.
Electrical energy
charged particles
ions
transmit messages from one part of the body to another.
action potentials or nerve impulses
The energy directly involved in moving matter; e.g., in bicycle riding, the legs provide the mechanical energy that moves the pedals.
mechanical
Emitted photons (wave packets) of energy or energy that travels in waves
radiant or electromagnetic energy
One of a limited number of unique varieties of matter that composes substances of all kinds; e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
elements
At present, 118 elements are recognized. Of these, 92 occur in nature. The rest are made artificially in particle accelerator devices.
elements
(1) Control center of a cell; contains genetic material; (2) clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS; (3) center of an atom; contains protons and neutrons.
Nucleus
Subatomic particle that bears a positive charge; located in the atomic nucleus.
Proton
Uncharged subatomic particle; found in the atomic nucleus.
Neutrons
Negatively charged subatomic particle; orbits the atom’s nucleus.
Electron
regions around the nucleus in which a given electron or electron pair is likely to be found most of the time.
orbitals
The number of protons in an atom.
atomic number
Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Mass number
Different atomic forms of the same element, which vary only in the number of neutrons they contain; the heavier species tend to be radioactive.
isotopes
The average of the mass numbers of all the isotopes of an element.
Atomic weight
Isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior.
radioisotope
The time required for a radioisotope to lose one-half of its activity is called
half life
An iron deficiency would decrease the ability of red blood cells to transport oxygen on hemoglobin molecules.
less O2 in the blood
Particle consisting of two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds.
Molecule
Substance composed of two or more different elements, the atoms of which are chemically united.
Compound
are substances composed of two or more components physically intermixed
Mixtures
3 types of mixtures
solutions, colloids, and suspensions
are homogeneous mixtures of components that may be gases, liquids, or solids.
solutions
means that the mixture has exactly the same composition or makeup throughout
homogeneous
The substance present in the greatest amount is called the ___ (or dissolving medium). ____ are usually liquids.
solvent
The substance that is dissolved in a solution.
solute
is a concentration measurement commonly used to measure the blood concentration of glucose, cholesterol, and so on. (A deciliter is 100 milliliters or 0.1 liter.)
Milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl)
A way to express the concentration of a solution; moles per liter of solution.
Molarity
a ____of any element or compound is equal to its atomic weight or its molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) measured in grams.
mole
The number of molecules in one mole of any substance, 6.02 × 1023.
Avogadro’s number
of atoms X atomic weight = total atomic weight in 1000ml is
1 moler solution?
A mixture in which the solute particles (usually proteins) do not settle out readily. (2) Substance in the thyroid gland containing thyroglobulin protein.
colloid
Colloids (kol´oidz), also called emulsions, are heterogeneous mixtures, which means that their composition is dissimilar in different areas of the mixture. Colloids often appear translucent or milky and although the solute particles are larger than those in true solutions, they still do not settle out. However, they do scatter light, so the path of a light beam shining through a colloidal mixture is visible.
Reversible change of a colloid from a fluid (sol) to a more solid (gel) state.
sol-gel transformation
Heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out.
suspension
Regions of space that consecutively surround the nucleus of an atom; the atom’s electrons are most likely to be found in these regions.
electron shells
Outermost electron shell (energy level) of an atom that contains electrons.
Valence Shell
The tendency of atoms to interact in such a way that they have eight electrons in their valence shell.
Octet rule or rule of 8’s
Three major types of chemical bonds
ionic, covalent, and hydrogen
Atom or molecule with a positive or negative electric charge.
ion
Chemical bond formed by electron transfer between atoms.
ionic bond - intermediate
An ion with a negative charge.
anion
An ion with a positive charge.
cation (remember the T in cation as a “+”)
large arrays of cations and anions held together by ionic bonds
crystals
Chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms.
covalent bond - strongest
Electrically symmetrical molecules.
nonpolar molecules
Electrically asymmetric molecules.
polar molecules
Nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms.
dipole or polar molucule
form when a hydrogen atom, already covalently linked to one electronegative atom (usually nitrogen or oxygen), is attracted by another electron-hungry atom, so that a “bridge” forms between them.
hydrogen bonds - weakest
A substance that is an input to a chemical reaction.
reactant
Most chemical reactions can be categorized as one of three types:
synthesis, decomposition, or exchange reactions.
occurs when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms:
decomposition reaction
_____reactions are the basis of constructive, or anabolic, activities in body cells, such as joining small molecules called amino acids into large protein molecules . this reaction always involves bond formation
synthysis
A reaction that couples the oxidation (loss of electrons) of one substance with the reduction (gain of electrons) of another substance.
oxidation-reduction reaction redox
Chemical reaction that releases energy, e.g., a catabolic or oxidative reaction.
exergonic reactions
Chemical reaction that absorbs energy, e.g., an anabolic reaction.
Endergonic reaction
A state of apparent repose created by two reactions proceeding in opposite directions at equal speed.
chemical equilibrium
The factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions are:
Temperature. Higher temperatures increase the kinetic energy of particles and the force of their collisions, increasing the rate of chemical reactions.
Concentration. High concentrations of reacting particles increase the chances of successful collisions, and reactions progress faster. Lowering concentrations slows reactions. Unless reactants are added or products removed, chemical equilibrium will eventually occur.
Particle size. The smaller the reacting particles, the faster the chemical reaction. Smaller particles move faster than larger ones (at the same temperature) and so collide more frequently and forcefully.
Catalysts. At normal body temperature, most chemical reactions would proceed far too slowly to maintain life were it not for the presence of catalysts. Catalysts (kat´ah-lists) are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves becoming chemically changed or part of the product. Biological catalysts are called enzymes (en´zīmz). Later in this chapter we describe how enzymes work.
contain carbon and are made by living things.
organic compounds
Chemical substances that do not contain carbon, including water, salts, and many acids and bases.
inorganic compounds
A substance that releases hydrogen ions when in solution (compare with Base); a proton donor.
acid
A hydrogen atom minus its electron and therefore carrying a positive charge (i.e., a proton).
hydrogen ion
A substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; an acid.
proton donor
Displacement reaction in which mixing an acid and a base forms water and a salt.
neutralization reaction
Chemical substance or system that minimizes changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions.
buffers
Chemical system that helps maintain pH homeostasis of the blood. Also called carbonic acid–
bicarbonate buffer system.
Process in which water is used to split a substance into smaller parts.
hydrolysis
Literally, one sugar; building block of carbohydrates; e.g., glucos
Monosaccharides - pentose and hexose are most important to the body. Hexose is blood sugar. Galactose and fuctose are 2 types of hexose
Literally, double sugar; e.g., sucrose, lactose. maltose
disaccharide
Literally, many sugars, a polymer of linked monosaccharides; e.g., starch, glycogen.
Polysaccharides
Hydrophobic organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples are fats and cholesterol.
Lipids
Fats and oils composed of fatty acids and glycerol; are the body’s most concentrated source of energy fuel.
Triglycerides
A class of lipids derived from (and including) cholesterol; act as hormones and as constituents of phospholipid bilayer membranes.
Steroids
Organic compound composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; types include enzymes, structural components; 10–30% of cell mass.
protein
organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; building block of protein.
amino acids
bond joining the amine group of one amino acid to the acid carboxyl group of a second amino acid with the loss of a water molecule.
peptide bond
The most common type of secondary structure of the amino acid chain in proteins; resembles a coiled spring.
alpha (α)-helix
3 true things about enzymes
The enzyme releases the product(s) of the reaction.
The enzyme’s active site binds to the substrate(s) on which it acts, temporarily forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
The enzyme-substrate complex undergoes internal rearrangements that form the product(s).
The ____ cavity contains the pericardial and pleural cavities, which in turn house the heart and lungs, respectively.
thoracic
Elements 1 and 2 are stable with a maximum of ____ electrons in their outermost (valence) energy level (electron shell)
2
What best describes an isotope
structurally variant atoms, which have the same number of protons and electrons, but differ in the number of neutrons they contain
____ is an unstable, high-energy molecule that provides body cells with a form of energy that is immediately usable
ATP
The genetic information is coded in DNA by the
sequence of the nucleotides
Serous membranes
Serous membranes secrete a watery lubricating fluid.
Serous membranes are divided into parietal and visceral membranes with a virtual space between the two.
Serosa are very thin, double-layered structures.
Triglycerides and phospholipids are two of the three major types of ____
lipids
enzymes
Some enzymes are purely protein.
Some enzymes are protein plus a cofactor.
Each enzyme is chemically specific.
_______may also be called emulsions
Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures, meaning their composition is dissimilar in different areas of the mixture. Colloids often appear translucent or milky and although the solute particles are larger than those in true solutions, they still do not settle out. Suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out.
The atomic number of any atom is equal to the number
protons
Sucrose is a
disaccharide
One PH unit changes the
the concentration of H+ by a factor of 10
positive ions are also called
cations
negative ions are also called
anions
the lower the ph the greater the
acidity
When H+ increases, acidity increases and PH
decreases
When H+ decreases, acidity decreases and PH
increases
3 types of hormones
petides, amines, and steroids
Most hormones are ____ and water soluble
peptides
The amine hormones are derives from the amino acid
tyrosine
Dopamine, norepi and epi are catecholamines which are
water soluble
T3 and T4 are ______ and form the Thyroid hormone
lipid soluble
Steroids are derived from the molecule _____ and are lipid soluble
Cholesterol
this generate nerve impulse or ____ potential
axon
conductive region of the neuron
axon
receives signals from other cells and send them towards the axon
branched dendrite
main nutritional and metabolic region of the neuron
cell body
The contractile cells of the body can be classified into 3 major groups
Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle
______ bonds are energy relationships between electrons and the reacting atom
Chemical bonds
A ______ is a chemical bond formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from the valence shell of one atom to that of the other.
ionic
_______ molecules are electrically balanced
nonpolar
_____ is the process by which large complex molecules are broken down into smaller, simpler molecules and atoms, which is an exergonic, or energy-releasing, process.
catabolism
in ______a molecule of water is added for each bond broken
hydrolysis
Molecular chaperones are enzymes that aid in the desired folding of_____
proteins
___ and ____ are purines.
Guanine , adenine
organic compound is analyzed, and it has twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms. This compound is most likely a __________.
CARBOHYDRATE
Carbohydrates have CHO with a 1:2:1 ratio.
Enzymes __________the rate of a chemical reaction by __________ the activation energy.
increase, lowering
Buffers tend to prevent dramatic changes in pH when __________ are added to a solution.
proton donors or proton acceptors
Buffers for pH accept or release protons.
are monomers of carbohydrates.
Monosaccharaides
are monomers of nucleic acids.
Nucleotides
The monomers of proteins are __________.
amino acids
If the pH or temperature of the environment that contains a protein is altered dramatically, then the protein may __________.
denatured
mixtures, which means that their composition is dissimilar in different areas of the mixture.
heterogeneous
______ molecules are electrically balanced as a result of the equal sharing of electrons between the atoms of the molecules. Polar molecules are created as a result of unequal electron pair sharing. Water is one of the most important polar molecules in a living system.
nonpolar
A _____ substance will have a slippery feel and bitter taste
basic
a ____ substance will have a sour taste
acidic
One of a limited number of unique varieties of matter that composes substances of all kinds; e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
Elements
for any atom, the number of protons and electrons are always
equal
Chief difference between mixures and compunds
The chief difference between mixtures and compounds is that no chemical bonding occurs between the components of a mixture. The properties of atoms and molecules are not changed when they become part of a mixture. Remember they are only physically intermixed.
The atoms known so far can have electrons in ____shells
seven
Most ionic compounds fall into the chemical category called
salts
bonding rules
When 2 atoms share 1 pair of electrons, a single covalent bond is formed (indicated by a single line connecting the atoms, such as H—H). In some cases, atoms share two or three electron pairs, resulting in double or triple covalent bonds (Figures 2.7b and 2.7c). (These bonds are indicated by double or triple connecting lines such as .)
Process in which molecules are formed, changed, or broken down.
chemical reaction
A substance that takes up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts. Commonly referred to as a base.
Proton acceptor
An ion liberated when a hydroxide (a common inorganic base) is dissolved in water.
hydroxyl ion
A substance of high molecular weight with long, chainlike molecules consisting of many similar (repeated) units.
poylmor
Process by which a large molecule is synthesized by removing water and covalently bonding smaller molecules together.
Dyhydration synthysis
is the storage carbohydrate formed by plants
starch
the storage carbohydrate of animal tissues, is stored primarily in skeletal muscle and liver cells.
glycogen
are modified triglycerides. Specifically, they have two, rather than three, fatty acid chains.
Phospholipids
Refers to molecules, or portions of molecules, that interact only with nonpolar molecules.
hydrophobic
efers to molecules, or portions of molecules, that interact with water and charged particles.
hydrophilic
are diverse lipids chiefly derived from a 20-carbon fatty acid (arachidonic acid) found in all cell membranes.
eicosanoids
the primary polypeptide chains do not coil, but are linked side by side by hydrogen bonds to form a pleated, ribbonlike structure that resembles an accordion’s bellows
beta (β)-pleated sheet
transports thyroid hormone in the blood
Transthyretin
Region on the surface of a functional (globular) protein where it binds and interacts chemically with other molecules of complementary shape and charge.
active site
A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction.
enzymes
The protein portion of an enzyme.
apoenzyme
Metal ion or organic molecule that is required for enzyme activity.
Cofactor
Most organic co‑ factors are derived from vitamins (especially the B complex vitamins). In this case the type of cofactor is more precisely called a
Coenzyme
Nonprotein substance associated with and activating an enzyme; typically a vitamin.
Coenzyme
A reactant on which an enzyme acts to cause a chemical action to proceed.
substrate
The amount of energy required to push a reactant to the level necessary for action.
activation energy
Class of organic molecules that includes DNA and RNA.
nucleic acid
Building block of nucleic acids; consists of a sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group.
nucleotide
One of the two major purines found in both RNA and DNA; also found in various free nucleotides of importance to the body, such as ATP.
adenine
One of two major purines occurring in all nucleic acids.
Guanine
Nitrogen-containing base that is part of a nucleotide structure.
cytosine
Single-ring base (a pyrimidine) in DNA.
Thymine
A smaller, single-ring base (a pyrimidine) found in RNA.
uracil
pentose sugar in DNA
deoxyribose
A always bonds to
T
G always bonds to
C
RNA sugar is
ribose
