Anatomy Flashcards
(186 cards)
1
Q
Histology is the study of
A
Tissues
2
Q
The plasma membrane separates the
A
intracellular fluid inside cells from the extracellular fluid outside.
3
Q
all body cells are surrounded by a selectively permeable
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plasma membrane
4
Q
Acromial area is
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the tip of the shoulder
5
Q
Axillary area is
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armpit
6
Q
The dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions which are
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Cranial cavity and vertebral cavity
7
Q
Both the brain and the spinal cord are covered by membranes called Both the brain and the spinal cord are covered by membranes called
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meninges.
8
Q
The more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities is the
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ventral body cavity
9
Q
The ventral body cavity has two subdivisions which are
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thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity
10
Q
The ventral body cavity houses internal organs collectively called the
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viscera or visceral organs
11
Q
The medial cavity of the thorax containing the heart, great vessels, thymus, and parts of the trachea, bronchi, and esophagus is the
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mediastinum
12
Q
The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into lateral _____ cavities (ploo´ral), each enveloping a lung, and the medial _____
A
pleural and mediastinum
13
Q
A _______occurs when part of the stomach slides through the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity, allowing stomach acid to cause heartburn (which is actually irritation of the esophagus, not the heart)
A
hiatal hernia
14
Q
The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains are covered by a thin, double-layered membrane, the _______ it is the moist membrane found in closed ventral body cavities.
A
serosa or serous membrane
15
Q
The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is called the
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parietal serosa (pah-ri´ĕ-tal; parie = wall)
16
Q
The part of the double-layered membrane that lines the outer surfaces of organs within the ventral body cavity.
A
Visceral serosa
17
Q
the ___ serosa is never exposed but is always fused to the cavity wall.
A
parietal
18
Q
the serous membranes are separated not by air but by a thin layer of lubricating fluid, called
A
serous fluid
19
Q
barely present, slitlike ____ is filled with serous fluid.
A
serous cavity
20
Q
The ____of an object is equal to the actual amount of matter in the object, and it remains constant wherever the object is.
A
Mass
21
Q
is defined as the capacity to do work, or to put matter into motion
A
energy
22
Q
The energy of motion or movement, e.g., the constant movement of atoms, or the push given to a swinging door that sets it into motion.
A
Kinetic Energy
23
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Stored or inactive energy.
A
Potential Energy
24
Q
Energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances.
A
Chemical energy
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Energy formed by the movement of charged particles, e.g., across or along cell membranes.
Electrical energy
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charged particles
ions
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transmit messages from one part of the body to another.
action potentials or nerve impulses
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The energy directly involved in moving matter; e.g., in bicycle riding, the legs provide the mechanical energy that moves the pedals.
mechanical
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Emitted photons (wave packets) of energy or energy that travels in waves
radiant or electromagnetic energy
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One of a limited number of unique varieties of matter that composes substances of all kinds; e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
elements
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At present, 118 elements are recognized. Of these, 92 occur in nature. The rest are made artificially in particle accelerator devices.
elements
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(1) Control center of a cell; contains genetic material; (2) clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS; (3) center of an atom; contains protons and neutrons.
Nucleus
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Subatomic particle that bears a positive charge; located in the atomic nucleus.
Proton
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Uncharged subatomic particle; found in the atomic nucleus.
Neutrons
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Negatively charged subatomic particle; orbits the atom’s nucleus.
Electron
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regions around the nucleus in which a given electron or electron pair is likely to be found most of the time.
orbitals
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The number of protons in an atom.
atomic number
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Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Mass number
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Different atomic forms of the same element, which vary only in the number of neutrons they contain; the heavier species tend to be radioactive.
isotopes
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The average of the mass numbers of all the isotopes of an element.
Atomic weight
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Isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior.
radioisotope
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The time required for a radioisotope to lose one-half of its activity is called
half life
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An iron deficiency would decrease the ability of red blood cells to transport oxygen on hemoglobin molecules.
less O2 in the blood
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Particle consisting of two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds.
Molecule
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Substance composed of two or more different elements, the atoms of which are chemically united.
Compound
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are substances composed of two or more components physically intermixed
Mixtures
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3 types of mixtures
solutions, colloids, and suspensions
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are homogeneous mixtures of components that may be gases, liquids, or solids.
solutions
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means that the mixture has exactly the same composition or makeup throughout
homogeneous
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The substance present in the greatest amount is called the ___ (or dissolving medium). ____ are usually liquids.
solvent
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The substance that is dissolved in a solution.
solute
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is a concentration measurement commonly used to measure the blood concentration of glucose, cholesterol, and so on. (A deciliter is 100 milliliters or 0.1 liter.)
Milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl)
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A way to express the concentration of a solution; moles per liter of solution.
Molarity
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a ____of any element or compound is equal to its atomic weight or its molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) measured in grams.
mole
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The number of molecules in one mole of any substance, 6.02 × 1023.
Avogadro’s number
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of atoms X atomic weight = total atomic weight in 1000ml is
1 moler solution?
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A mixture in which the solute particles (usually proteins) do not settle out readily. (2) Substance in the thyroid gland containing thyroglobulin protein.
colloid
Colloids (kol´oidz), also called emulsions, are heterogeneous mixtures, which means that their composition is dissimilar in different areas of the mixture. Colloids often appear translucent or milky and although the solute particles are larger than those in true solutions, they still do not settle out. However, they do scatter light, so the path of a light beam shining through a colloidal mixture is visible.
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Reversible change of a colloid from a fluid (sol) to a more solid (gel) state.
sol-gel transformation
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Heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out.
suspension
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Regions of space that consecutively surround the nucleus of an atom; the atom’s electrons are most likely to be found in these regions.
electron shells
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Outermost electron shell (energy level) of an atom that contains electrons.
Valence Shell
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The tendency of atoms to interact in such a way that they have eight electrons in their valence shell.
Octet rule or rule of 8's
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Three major types of chemical bonds
ionic, covalent, and hydrogen
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Atom or molecule with a positive or negative electric charge.
ion
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Chemical bond formed by electron transfer between atoms.
ionic bond - intermediate
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An ion with a negative charge.
anion
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An ion with a positive charge.
cation (remember the T in cation as a "+")
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large arrays of cations and anions held together by ionic bonds
crystals
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Chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms.
covalent bond - strongest
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Electrically symmetrical molecules.
nonpolar molecules
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Electrically asymmetric molecules.
polar molecules
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Nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms.
dipole or polar molucule
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form when a hydrogen atom, already covalently linked to one electronegative atom (usually nitrogen or oxygen), is attracted by another electron-hungry atom, so that a “bridge” forms between them.
hydrogen bonds - weakest
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A substance that is an input to a chemical reaction.
reactant
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Most chemical reactions can be categorized as one of three types:
synthesis, decomposition, or exchange reactions.
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occurs when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms:
decomposition reaction
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_____reactions are the basis of constructive, or anabolic, activities in body cells, such as joining small molecules called amino acids into large protein molecules . this reaction always involves bond formation
synthysis
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A reaction that couples the oxidation (loss of electrons) of one substance with the reduction (gain of electrons) of another substance.
oxidation-reduction reaction redox
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Chemical reaction that releases energy, e.g., a catabolic or oxidative reaction.
exergonic reactions
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Chemical reaction that absorbs energy, e.g., an anabolic reaction.
Endergonic reaction
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A state of apparent repose created by two reactions proceeding in opposite directions at equal speed.
chemical equilibrium
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The factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions are:
Temperature. Higher temperatures increase the kinetic energy of particles and the force of their collisions, increasing the rate of chemical reactions.
Concentration. High concentrations of reacting particles increase the chances of successful collisions, and reactions progress faster. Lowering concentrations slows reactions. Unless reactants are added or products removed, chemical equilibrium will eventually occur.
Particle size. The smaller the reacting particles, the faster the chemical reaction. Smaller particles move faster than larger ones (at the same temperature) and so collide more frequently and forcefully.
Catalysts. At normal body temperature, most chemical reactions would proceed far too slowly to maintain life were it not for the presence of catalysts. Catalysts (kat´ah-lists) are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves becoming chemically changed or part of the product. Biological catalysts are called enzymes (en´zīmz). Later in this chapter we describe how enzymes work.
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contain carbon and are made by living things.
organic compounds
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Chemical substances that do not contain carbon, including water, salts, and many acids and bases.
inorganic compounds
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A substance that releases hydrogen ions when in solution (compare with Base); a proton donor.
acid
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A hydrogen atom minus its electron and therefore carrying a positive charge (i.e., a proton).
hydrogen ion
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A substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; an acid.
proton donor
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Displacement reaction in which mixing an acid and a base forms water and a salt.
neutralization reaction
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Chemical substance or system that minimizes changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions.
buffers
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Chemical system that helps maintain pH homeostasis of the blood. Also called carbonic acid–
bicarbonate buffer system.
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Process in which water is used to split a substance into smaller parts.
hydrolysis
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Literally, one sugar; building block of carbohydrates; e.g., glucos
Monosaccharides - pentose and hexose are most important to the body. Hexose is blood sugar. Galactose and fuctose are 2 types of hexose
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Literally, double sugar; e.g., sucrose, lactose. maltose
disaccharide
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Literally, many sugars, a polymer of linked monosaccharides; e.g., starch, glycogen.
Polysaccharides
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Hydrophobic organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples are fats and cholesterol.
Lipids
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Fats and oils composed of fatty acids and glycerol; are the body’s most concentrated source of energy fuel.
Triglycerides
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A class of lipids derived from (and including) cholesterol; act as hormones and as constituents of phospholipid bilayer membranes.
Steroids
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Organic compound composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; types include enzymes, structural components; 10–30% of cell mass.
protein
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organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; building block of protein.
amino acids
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bond joining the amine group of one amino acid to the acid carboxyl group of a second amino acid with the loss of a water molecule.
peptide bond
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The most common type of secondary structure of the amino acid chain in proteins; resembles a coiled spring.
alpha (α)-helix
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3 true things about enzymes
The enzyme releases the product(s) of the reaction.
The enzyme's active site binds to the substrate(s) on which it acts, temporarily forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
The enzyme-substrate complex undergoes internal rearrangements that form the product(s).
103
The ____ cavity contains the pericardial and pleural cavities, which in turn house the heart and lungs, respectively.
thoracic
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Elements 1 and 2 are stable with a maximum of ____ electrons in their outermost (valence) energy level (electron shell)
2
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What best describes an isotope
structurally variant atoms, which have the same number of protons and electrons, but differ in the number of neutrons they contain
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____ is an unstable, high-energy molecule that provides body cells with a form of energy that is immediately usable
ATP
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The genetic information is coded in DNA by the
sequence of the nucleotides
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Serous membranes
Serous membranes secrete a watery lubricating fluid.
Serous membranes are divided into parietal and visceral membranes with a virtual space between the two.
Serosa are very thin, double-layered structures.
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Triglycerides and phospholipids are two of the three major types of ____
lipids
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enzymes
Some enzymes are purely protein.
Some enzymes are protein plus a cofactor.
Each enzyme is chemically specific.
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_______may also be called emulsions
Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures, meaning their composition is dissimilar in different areas of the mixture. Colloids often appear translucent or milky and although the solute particles are larger than those in true solutions, they still do not settle out. Suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out.
112
The atomic number of any atom is equal to the number
protons
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Sucrose is a
disaccharide
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One PH unit changes the
the concentration of H+ by a factor of 10
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positive ions are also called
cations
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negative ions are also called
anions
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the lower the ph the greater the
acidity
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When H+ increases, acidity increases and PH
decreases
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When H+ decreases, acidity decreases and PH
increases
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3 types of hormones
petides, amines, and steroids
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Most hormones are ____ and water soluble
peptides
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The amine hormones are derives from the amino acid
tyrosine
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Dopamine, norepi and epi are catecholamines which are
water soluble
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T3 and T4 are ______ and form the Thyroid hormone
lipid soluble
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Steroids are derived from the molecule _____ and are lipid soluble
Cholesterol
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this generate nerve impulse or ____ potential
axon
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conductive region of the neuron
axon
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receives signals from other cells and send them towards the axon
branched dendrite
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main nutritional and metabolic region of the neuron
cell body
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The contractile cells of the body can be classified into 3 major groups
Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle
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______ bonds are energy relationships between electrons and the reacting atom
Chemical bonds
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A ______ is a chemical bond formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from the valence shell of one atom to that of the other.
ionic
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_______ molecules are electrically balanced
nonpolar
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_____ is the process by which large complex molecules are broken down into smaller, simpler molecules and atoms, which is an exergonic, or energy-releasing, process.
catabolism
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in ______a molecule of water is added for each bond broken
hydrolysis
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Molecular chaperones are enzymes that aid in the desired folding of_____
proteins
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___ and ____ are purines.
Guanine , adenine
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organic compound is analyzed, and it has twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms. This compound is most likely a __________.
CARBOHYDRATE
Carbohydrates have CHO with a 1:2:1 ratio.
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Enzymes __________the rate of a chemical reaction by __________ the activation energy.
increase, lowering
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Buffers tend to prevent dramatic changes in pH when __________ are added to a solution.
proton donors or proton acceptors
Buffers for pH accept or release protons.
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are monomers of carbohydrates.
Monosaccharaides
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are monomers of nucleic acids.
Nucleotides
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The monomers of proteins are __________.
amino acids
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If the pH or temperature of the environment that contains a protein is altered dramatically, then the protein may __________.
denatured
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mixtures, which means that their composition is dissimilar in different areas of the mixture.
heterogeneous
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______ molecules are electrically balanced as a result of the equal sharing of electrons between the atoms of the molecules. Polar molecules are created as a result of unequal electron pair sharing. Water is one of the most important polar molecules in a living system.
nonpolar
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A _____ substance will have a slippery feel and bitter taste
basic
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a ____ substance will have a sour taste
acidic
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One of a limited number of unique varieties of matter that composes substances of all kinds; e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
Elements
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for any atom, the number of protons and electrons are always
equal
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Chief difference between mixures and compunds
The chief difference between mixtures and compounds is that no chemical bonding occurs between the components of a mixture. The properties of atoms and molecules are not changed when they become part of a mixture. Remember they are only physically intermixed.
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The atoms known so far can have electrons in ____shells
seven
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Most ionic compounds fall into the chemical category called
salts
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bonding rules
When 2 atoms share 1 pair of electrons, a single covalent bond is formed (indicated by a single line connecting the atoms, such as H—H). In some cases, atoms share two or three electron pairs, resulting in double or triple covalent bonds (Figures 2.7b and 2.7c). (These bonds are indicated by double or triple connecting lines such as .)
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Process in which molecules are formed, changed, or broken down.
chemical reaction
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A substance that takes up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts. Commonly referred to as a base.
Proton acceptor
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An ion liberated when a hydroxide (a common inorganic base) is dissolved in water.
hydroxyl ion
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A substance of high molecular weight with long, chainlike molecules consisting of many similar (repeated) units.
poylmor
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Process by which a large molecule is synthesized by removing water and covalently bonding smaller molecules together.
Dyhydration synthysis
160
is the storage carbohydrate formed by plants
starch
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the storage carbohydrate of animal tissues, is stored primarily in skeletal muscle and liver cells.
glycogen
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are modified triglycerides. Specifically, they have two, rather than three, fatty acid chains.
Phospholipids
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Refers to molecules, or portions of molecules, that interact only with nonpolar molecules.
hydrophobic
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efers to molecules, or portions of molecules, that interact with water and charged particles.
hydrophilic
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are diverse lipids chiefly derived from a 20-carbon fatty acid (arachidonic acid) found in all cell membranes.
eicosanoids
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the primary polypeptide chains do not coil, but are linked side by side by hydrogen bonds to form a pleated, ribbonlike structure that resembles an accordion’s bellows
beta (β)-pleated sheet
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transports thyroid hormone in the blood
Transthyretin
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Region on the surface of a functional (globular) protein where it binds and interacts chemically with other molecules of complementary shape and charge.
active site
169
A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction.
enzymes
170
The protein portion of an enzyme.
apoenzyme
171
Metal ion or organic molecule that is required for enzyme activity.
Cofactor
172
Most organic co‑ factors are derived from vitamins (especially the B complex vitamins). In this case the type of cofactor is more precisely called a
Coenzyme
173
Nonprotein substance associated with and activating an enzyme; typically a vitamin.
Coenzyme
174
A reactant on which an enzyme acts to cause a chemical action to proceed.
substrate
175
The amount of energy required to push a reactant to the level necessary for action.
activation energy
176
Class of organic molecules that includes DNA and RNA.
nucleic acid
177
Building block of nucleic acids; consists of a sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group.
nucleotide
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One of the two major purines found in both RNA and DNA; also found in various free nucleotides of importance to the body, such as ATP.
adenine
179
One of two major purines occurring in all nucleic acids.
Guanine
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Nitrogen-containing base that is part of a nucleotide structure.
cytosine
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Single-ring base (a pyrimidine) in DNA.
Thymine
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A smaller, single-ring base (a pyrimidine) found in RNA.
uracil
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pentose sugar in DNA
deoxyribose
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A always bonds to
T
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G always bonds to
C
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RNA sugar is
ribose
