Anatomy 2 Final Flashcards
how many liters of blood are in an adult?
4 to 6 liters
what is blood considered to be?
connective tissue
what are the components of blood?
erythrocytes, plasma, buffy coat
what are the formed elements of blood?
erythrocytes and buffy coat, these formed elements and liquid plasma compose whole blood
erythrocytes
red blood cells
- form the lower layer of centrifuged blood
- about 44% of the blood sample
buffy coat
the middle layer of centrifuged blood
- thin, slightly grey white layer composed of leukocytes (white blood cells) and cell fragments (platelets)
- 1% of blood sample
plasma
top layer of centrifuged blood
- straw colored liquid
- 55% of blood
functions of blood
- transportation (rbc carry oxygen from lungs to cells and CO2 from cells back to lungs; plasma transports nutrients from gi tract and hormones secreted by glands to target cells; plasma carries waste from cells to kidneys to be removed)
- regulation of body temp (plasma absorbs & distributes heat, vessels dilate to cool and constrict to conserve heat)
- maintenance of fluid levels (maintains fluid level in cardiovascular system)
- maintenance of pH levels (keeps pH at 7.4 for normal cell functioning)
- protection (wbc guard against infection, plasma transports antiobodies, platelets & proteins protect against blood loss by forming blood clots)
components of plasma
- extracellular fluid matrix of blood
- mixture of water, proteins and other solutes (enzymes, nutrients, wastes, hormones)
- 92 % water (facilitates transportation)
- w/o proteins call serum
- 7% proteins
albumins
smallest and most abundant plasma protein
- regulate water movement between blood and interstitial fluid
- transport proteins that carry ions, hormones and some liquids in blood
globulins
second largest group (37%)
alpha- smaller and primarily bind, support and protect water insoluble or hydrophobic molecules, hormones and ions
gamma- immunoglobulins, produced by defense cells to protect body against pathogens
fibrinogen
4% of plasma proteins, responsible for blood clot formation
regulatory proteins
very minor class of plasma protein, include enzymes to accelerate chemical reactions in blood and hormones transported to target cells
hematocrit
% of erythrocytes in the blood, vary upon age and gender
males 42%-56%
females 38%-46%
childrens also vary
also dependent upon altitude, body produces more rbc at higher altitudes because they carry the oxygen to cells
erythrocytes
mature rbc lack nuclei-allows to carry gasses more efficiently
transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from cells and lungs
hemoglobin
280 million molecules of red pigment hemoglobin per rbc
all have 4 protein building blocks
4 ions allow for 4 oxygen molecules to bind to each molecule
oxygen binding is weak (get from lungs and this allows them to easily detach in tissues where oxygen is needed)
life cycle of erythrocyte
no organells, so they can't sustain themselves life span 120 days daily: about 1% of oldest rbc's removed -phagocyted by sp and lv via macrophages some components saved some discarded
what components of old rbc cells are saved and why?
heme group- converted to biliverdin (green pigment), then to bilirubin in bile to help emulsify fat and then removed
iron- transferrin transports it to liver, turns to ferritin for storage and transported to red bone marrow
leukocytes
white blood cells, true cells with nuclei and organells
no hemoglobin.
5 types devided into 2 categories. granulocytes and agranulocytes
agranulocytes
lymphocytes
-tcell manage and direct immune response
-bcell stimulated to become plasma cells and produce antiobodies
-natural killer cells attack abnormal and infected tissue cells
monocytes
-phagocytize bacteria, cell fragments, dead cells, debris
endocrine system
works with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis
- endocrine glands produce hormones
- hormones are chemicals secreted into blood stream to stimulate a response from another tissue or organ
- target cells have the receptors for hormones
major endocrine organs
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, parathyroid glad, brain, heart, small intestines, adreanal gland, pancrease, kidney, thymus, thyroid gland, ovary, testis
difference between endocrine and exocrine glands
endocrine-no ducts, intracellular effects (metabolism), secrete directly to bloodstream, located in highly vascularized areas
exocrine- ducts, carry secretion to body surface or organ cavity extracellular affect (digetion)
classification of hormones
peptide (hydrophyllic-polar)- chains of amino acids ex. growth hormone
steroid (hydrophobic-nonpolar)- lipid derived from cholesterol ex. testosterone
biogenic amines (hydrophobic-nonpolar) small molecule produced by altering a structure of an amino acid ex. thyroid hormone
endocrine function of the heart
decrease blood volume and blood pressure and increase sodium and water loss by kidneys
endocrine function of kidneys
increase absorption of calcitrol and decrease its loss from bone deposition
erythropoietin- stimulates bonemarrow to produce rbc’s
endocrine function of stomach and small intestines
enteric hormones coordinate digestive motility and secretion
endocrine function of the liver
regulate blood pressure, stimulate bone marrow to produce rbc’s and mediate action of GH
endocrine function of placenta
secretes estrogen and progesterone to regulate pregnancy, stimulate development of fetus and mammary glands
Nasopharynx
Receives auditory tubes and contains pharyngeal tonsil
Nasopharynx
Receives auditory tubes and contains pharyngeal tonsil
small intestines facts
17 to 21 feet (5-6 meters)
where most of the nutrients from ingested food is absorbed
covered in plicae circulara (wrinkles) to increase surface area for maximum absorption of nutrients
digestion here produces a mixture of disaccharides, peptides, fatty acids, and monoglycerides
each villus has microvilli, which increase surface area to 200 square meters
each villus contains lacteal (absorbs fat) & capillaries (absorb all other nutrients)
Oropharynx
Between soft palate root of tongue goes as far down as hyoid bone
Contains pal anyone and lingual tonsils
large intestine facts
receives liquid residue after digestion and absorption, nourishes large population of bacteria
reobsorption of water is main function-to avoid dehydration
about 5 ft long, cecum, colon, rectum and canal
Laryngopharynx
From hyoid to cricoid cartilage
liver facts
largest glandular oragn, 3lbs,
4 unequal lobes (left, right, quadrate, caudate)
falciform ligament separates left and right
round ligament separates quadrate and caudate
gallbladder adheres to ventral surface between right and quadrate lobes
Stomach functions
- Store swallowed food & liquid
- Mixes it with digestive juices
- Empties contents slowly to small intestines
functions of liver
- converts glucose to glycogen
- produces urea
- makes certain amino acids
- filters harmful substances from blood
- stores vitamins and minerals (a, d, k and b12)
- maintains proper blood glucose levels
- produces cholesterol
omentum
lacy layer of connective tissue that contains lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels and blood vessels.
purpose is to catch and store fat so your stomach has access to it, but it can create an inflammatory process and irritate arteries
healthy=thin and transparent
receives stress hormone cortisol which can make it grow
adensosine triphosphate (atp)
energy from food that is converted to their constitutional parts and then to atp when needed
used for all energy requiring processes
heavy molecule-we use about 75% of our body mass daily of atp–so eat well and often!
functions of urinary system
- remove waste products from blood stream
- storage and excretion of urine
- blood volume regulation
- regulation of erythrocyte production by measuring oxygen in blood
where are the kidneys located
superior pole @ T12, inferior @ L3, right KD 2 cm lower than left
retroperitoneal- between peritoneum and posterior abdominal wall
nephron facts
glomerous (bp pushes plasma into bowman's capsule, only place where blood is filtered) proximal tubule (nutrients moved out through active transport and water follows by osmosis) loop of henle (salty, allowing water to diffuse the loop) distal tubule (moves more nutrients out and ions, drugs, toxins actively pumped into tubule) collecting duct (more water leaves by osmosis and some urea gets out)
ureter
long muscular tubes, carry urine to the bladder by peristalsis (rhythmic muscle contraction)
urinary bladder
expandable muscular organ, stores up to 500 mL, trigone-triangle formed by ureters and urethra,
urethra
tube that moves urine from the bladder to outside the body. shorter in ladies
abnormal constitutes of urine
glucose (from stress, diabetes, excess carbs)
albumin, ketone bodies, ketonuria (starvation, diabetes)
rbc, hemoglobin, bile pigments, wbc (uti)
acute renal failure
sudden lost of kidney function, can be reversed
chronic renal failure
kidney slowly loses ability to function, not reversed
cystisis
urinary tract infection
glomerulonephritis
inflammation of glomeruli of kidney, one cause of chronic renal failure
incontinence
inability to control urine
polycystic kidney disease
enlargement of kidneys due to presence of many cysts within them, slow progressive disease
pyelonephritis
complicated urinary tract infection, starts in bladder and spreads to kidneys, acute or chronic
renal calculi
kidney stones, in ducts within kidney or ureters
prostate gland
cluster of glands the size of a walnut, surrounds urethra
secretes thick whitish fluid that helps transport sperm
growth stops and 20 and starts again at age 50
enlarged it affects urination
3 phases of ovarian cycle
- follicular phase- days 1-13
- ovulation- day 14 release of the secondary oocyte from vesicular follicle
- luteal phase- days 15-28 remaining follicle cells turn to corpus luteum, secrete estrogen and progesterone to build uterine lining and prepare for possible implantation of feritilized oocyte that has life span of 10-13 days, if not fertilizied becomes a corpus albicans and uterine lining is shed
walls of uterus
- endometrium- innermost layer, vascular with tubular glands-mucus
- myometrium-middle thick muscular layer
- perimetrium- thin layer covers myometrium, secretes serous fluid to coat and protect uterus
fallopian tube
infundibulum and fimbriae- fringed end of fallopian tube that function to catch an ovum
its a muscular tube lined with mucus membrane and cillia to propel ovum toward uterus
uterus divisions
fundus-domed shaped upper portion
body-main portion
cervix-narrow lower section extending into vagina
prenatal period-embryonic
formation of: placenta, amnion, umbilical cord, yolk sack, most internal organs and structures of embryo
prenatal period-fetal
week 8 through birth- rapid growth
5th month skeletal muscles
6th month gains weight
fetal circulation
placenta and umbilical cord carry out exchange of nutrients, oxygen and waste products
foramen ovale-allows blood to bypass lungs
ductus arteriosus- connection between pumonary trunk and aorta
ductuc venosus- vessel that bypasses the liver
gestational period
average 266 days (post conception)
birth process
begins when progesterone levels fall
prostaglandins secreted by uterus to start contractions, which stimulate pituitary to release oxytocin, which in turn stimulates strong uterine contractions
3 stages of birth
- dilation- cervix thins and softens (8 to 24 hours)
- expulsion or parturtition- actual birth (30 min or less)
- placental stage- 10 to 15 min after birth
postnatal period
6 weeks following birth
neonatal- first 4 weeks
neonate is adjusting to life outside uterus
milk production and secretion with oxytocin and prolactin
