Anatomy Flashcards
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Axial Skeleton
bones of head, neck and trunk (80 bones)
Appendicular Skeleton
bones of limbs (including pectoral and girdle)
Compact Bone
dense bone, forms outer shell of all bone, microscopic canals containing nerves and blood vessels
Spongy Bone (Trabecular)
trabecular aligned to assist with weight bearing, lines of compressive stress and lines of tensile stress. filled with bone marrow
Long bones
longer than they are wide, bear a lot of weight
Short bones
width and length similar, stability and support
Flat bones
thin, flattened. protect vital organs
irregular bones
dont fit in other categories (vertebrae)
What is the periosteum and what does it do?
It is a tough connective tissue sheath that nourishes external aspects of the skeletal tissue and can lay down more bone, contains perforating fibres
What does Medullary Cavity contain?
Yellow bone marrow and blood vessels
How do blood vessels enter and exit bones
vascular formina
Which artery does the diaphysis have? And what does is divide into
Single large nutrient arteries that divides into superior and inferior medullary branches, also receives small periosteal arteries
What artery/ies does the end of a developing bone recieve?
metaphyseal and epiphyseal arteries
Does the Articular cartilaginous plate have veins/arteries?
No, it is avascular
Name the two types of ossification
Intramembranous and Endochondral
What is Intramembranous ossification?
directly from mesenchyme, forms during embryonic period, direct in foetal development
What is endochondral ossification?
Cartilage models of bones form from mesenchyme, bone replaces cartilage
Which bones use endochondral ossification?
All bones below base of skull, except clavicle
Blood vessels have (no.) _____ surrounding the _____
3 layers (tunics), lumen
What are the three layers surrounding the lumen of a blood vessel?
Tunica intima, tunica media and tunica adventitia
Describe components of the tunica intima
contains endothelium and is responsible for gases
Describe components of the tunica media
most variable in all the vessels, thick smooth muscle and is responsible for blood flow
Describe components of tunica adventitia
outermost connective tissue, responsible for anchoring and integrating to other structures
Name the types of arteries and arterial brances
large elastic arteries, medium muscular arteries and small arteries and arterioles
What is the role of anastomoses?
To provide communication between multiple branches of an artery acting as a detour circuit in case of obstruction etc.
Name the three types of veins
venules, medium veins and large veins
Function of venules
combine to form venous plexuses
Function of medium veins
drain venous plexuses, accompany medium arteries and contain valves where blood flow opposes gravity
Makeup of large veins
wide bundles of longitudinal smooth muscle, well-developed adventitia, smooth blood flow
Comparison between anatomical components between arteries and veins
tunica media in veins are thinner than arteries however the diameter and lumens are larger in veins than arteries
Describe some features of capillaries
small, only made of endothelial layer and basal lamina. arranged into capillary beds that connect arterioles and venules
What are the three ways of venous return
- blood pressure within vascular sheaths (vascular venous pump)
- contraction of skeletal muscle (musculovenous pump)
- oscillation of intrathoracic pressure caused by respiration (thoracic venous pump)
Describe the process of vascular venous pump
vascular sheaths encasing arteries and veins are resistant to pressure, so when arteries pump the veins are flattened against walls of sheath promoting the flow of blood back to the heart
Describe the process of musculovenous pump
expansion and contraction of muscles pumps the blood in veins due to the fascia (limits) to the heart
Describe the process of thoracic venous pump
Diapraghm ascends and descended shortening and lengthening the SVC and IVC, filling and emptying
Describe the functional role of lymph vessels
clear interstitial spaces of surplus fluid, leaked plasma proteins, cellular debris, carries lipids and returns lymphocytes from lymph organs to blood
Explain the organisation of lymphatic vascular system
superficial and deep lymph capillaries - and organ specific. collector lymph vessels are structurally similar to medium veins, walls and valves
Name the major sites of lymph nodes
cervical nodes, axillary nodes, deep nodes, pericranial ring, tracheal nodes, inguinal nodes, femoral nodes
Describe the role of lymph nodes
acts as a filter to trap things in lymph and defend against foreign antigens, will be enlarged and tender when fighting infection
Describe the process of lymph flow
Lymph capillaries -> collector vessels -> larger and merging -> large lymph vessels enter lymphatic trunks -> unite to form right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct -> duct drains into venous system at the neck
Name 4 differences between germ and somatic cells
germ cells: reproductive, meosis and mitosis, creates gametes, haploid
somatic cells: not reproductive, mitosis only, everything else, diploid
6 types of cell behaviours
- Cell specification
- Cell differentiation
- Cell-cell communication
- Cell shape changes
- Cell proliferation
- Cell death
what is cell specification?
fate is specified but can be reversed in new environment
what is cell determination?
a cell has an irreversible fate
what are the two main principles of pattern formation?
Sequential induction
- Development of various tissues and organs
Two signalling centres
Forming limbs etc. whether something is proximal or distal or anterior or posterior
what is sequential induction?
type of cell pattern formation (embryology) Development of various tissues and organs
what is referred to when using the term ‘two signalling centres’?
type of cell pattern formation (embryology) Forming limbs etc. whether something is proximal or distal or anterior or posterior
Define homeostasis
“the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment NOTWITHSTANDING swings and changes in external environment. Self-regulatory/self adjusting/reflexive”
Why do we need homeostasis?
Create ideal environment for cells to function
Name the bones of the thorax
Thoracic vertebrae and intevertebral discs (12)
Ribs (12 pairs)
Sternum (manubrium, body, xiphoid process)
Describe the terms true, false and floating ribs
○ True ribs: attach directly to sternum (1-7)
○ False ribs: attach via costal cartilage of rib 7 (8,9 and usually 10)
○ Floating ribs: attached to vertebral column (11 and 12, sometimes 10)
How can typical and atypical ribs be categorised
Can be categorised by shape and bony landmarks
Describe the features of typical ribs and which ribs are these
Typical ribs (3-9)
Anterior end:
§ Continuous with costal cartilage
Posterior end:
§ Head: two articular surfaces for its own and the superior vertebrae
§ Tubercule: articular facet for costal facet of transverse process of same numbered thoracic vertebra
Costal surface:
§ Internal surface
§ Marked with the costal groove
§External surface
Palpable
Describe the features of atypical ribs and which ribs are these
Atypical Ribs (ribs 1, 2, 10, 11, 12)
Rib 1
§ Flat, almost horizontal
§ Single fact for articulation with T1
§ Superior surface marked with 2x transverse grooves for subclavian vessels
Rib 2
§ Thinner, less curved body
§ 2x facets for articulation with T1 and T2
§ Tuberosity for attachment of serratus anterior
Rib 10
§ 1x facet to articulate with T10 vertebrae
Ribs 11 and 12
§ 1x facet to articulate with their own vertebrae: have no neck or tubercule
§ Do not curve around torso
§ Do not connect to costal cartilage
Describe the features of thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic vertebrae
Twelve vertebral bones characterised by additional articular surfaces for the ribs
○ Heart shaped vertebral body, two small demi facets for articulation with head of ribs (superior and inferior costal facets)
○ Transverse process has facet for articulation with tubercle of rib
○ Long, thin, overlapping spinous process
Describe the features of the sternum
- Manubrium
○ Jugular notch on the midline
○ Articular surfaces for the body of the sternum, the clavicle and ribs- Body of the sternum
○ Flat, often marked with sternebrae
○ Lateral edges marked with articular surfaces for ribs - Xiphoid process
○ Various shapes due to anatomical variations
○ Attached to body of sternum and 7th rib
- Body of the sternum
What are the joints of the thorax?
- Costovertebral and costotransverse
○ Between ribs and vertebrae
○ Multiple articulations
○ Separate synovial compartments- Costochondral joints
○ Between the ribs and the costal cartilage (cartilaginous joint - synchondrosis) - Sternocostal
○ Between the costal cartilage and the sternum
○ Rib #1 synchondrosis, #2-7 synovial - Interchondral
○ Between the costal cartilage of the false ribs
○ Synovial, reinforced with ligaments - Sternal symphyses
○ Manubriosternal
○ Xiphisternal
- Costochondral joints
Describe in details the costovertebral and costotransverse joints
Costovertebral and costotransverse
- Multifaceted synovial joints
- Costovertebral joints:
○ Head of rib and bodies of adjacent vertebrae
§ Superior facet of its own vertebra and inferior facet of the superior facet
○ Two synovial compartments and an intra-articular ligament surrounded by a single joint cavity
- Costotransverse joints
○ Tubercule of rib and transverse process of its own vertebra
What are the movements of the thoracic wall
- Thoracic wall is expandable, important for breathing
- Possible because most articulations of the ribs are synovial and allow movements
- Ribs posterior attachment is superior to anterior attachment, so entire thoracic wall moves when rib is elevated
Describe the location of the heart within the mediastinum
Located in middle of mediastinum with pericardium (T5-8), roots of great vessels and nerves (esp. phrenic and vagus)
What is the fibrous pericardium?
Fibrous pericardium - outer layer
- Tough dense connective tissue
- Base attached to diaphragm via pericardiacophrenic ligament
- Apex continuous with tunica adventitia of great vessels
What is the serous pericardium? And describe its features
Serous pericardium - inner layer
- Deep to fibrous pericardium
- Thin, slippery two-layer membrane forming a closed sac around the heart
○ Parietal later
§ Lines the inner surface of the fibrous pericardium
○ Visceral layer
§ Adheres to the surface of the heart
- Joins at the roots of the great vessels
○ Superiorly around aa: aorta and pulmonary trunk (transverse pericardial sinus)
○ Posteriorly surrounding vv: SVC, IVC, pulmonary vv (oblique pericardial sinus)
○ Pericardial cavity is potential space between opposing parietal and visceral layers of serous pericardium, filled with serous fluid (reduces friction)
What is the size of the heart?
- About the size of a fist
- Weight 260-350 grams
- Surprisingly variable
What is the position of the herat?
- Extends obliquely from 12-14cm from 2nd rib to 5th intercostal space
- Rests on superior surface of diaphragm
- 2/3 lies left of the midsternal line, projects to the right, apex at 5th intercostal space near midclavicular line
What are the surfaces of the heart?
Surfaces
- Anterior (sternocostal) surface
○ Formed mainly by right ventricle
- Diaphragmatic (inferior) surface (bottom of heart)
○ Formed mainly by left ventricle, part of right ventricle
- Left pulmonary surface
○ Formed mainly by left ventricle, forms cardiac impression on left lung
- Right pulmonary surface
○ Formed mainly by right atrium
- Base
○ Posterior surface
What are the borders of the heart
- Right, inferior, left, superior borders
- Important for radiographic studies
What are the two atrioventricular valves? What are their functions
Tricuspid and mitral
- separate the atria and the ventricles
- prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles contract
What are the two semilunar valves? What are their functions
aortic and pulmonary
- between the great vessels and the ventricles
- prevent back flow into the ventricles
Describe diastole
mitral and tricuspid valve open, pulmonary and aortic valve closed
Describe systole
mitral and tricuspid valve closed, pulmonary and aortic valve open
how does blood enter the right atrium?
via three veins:
superior vena cava
inferior vena cava
coronary sinus
How can you recognise the auricles of the heart
they look like a dogs ear over the atriums
What does the right ventricle do?
pumps blood into pulmonary trunk - to lungs for oxygenation
Describe some features of the right ventricle
internal walls marked by trabeculae carnae (bulges on internal wall contribute to papillary muscles)
papillary muscles - anterior, posterior, septal. play a role in valve function
Chordae tendiae - chords of tendons attached to papillary muscles and tricuspid valve
How does blood enter the left atrium?
via four veins
- 2x left pulmonary veins
- 2x right pulmonary veins
What is the fossa ovalis in relation to the atria of the heart
oval depression in the interatrial septum
marks spot where an opening existed in fetal heart
What separates the atria?
interatrial septum
What type of muscles are on the anterior of the right atrium
pectinae muscles
What does the left ventricle do?
pumps blood into the aorta
Fill in the blanks: the right and left ventricle have _______ carnae, ___________ muscles and ________ tendinae
the right and left ventricle have trabeculae carnae, papillary muscles and chordae tendinae
Fill in the blanks: the right and left ventricle have _______ carnae, ___________ muscles and ________ tendinae
the right and left ventricle have trabeculae carnae, papillary muscles and chordae tendinae
What are two main anatomical differences between the left and right ventricles
left ventricle has a thicker wall, right ventricle is crescent shaped and wraps around left ventricle which is circular
describe the mitral valve
separates the left atria and ventricle, two semilunar cusps, attached to left ventricular wall via chordae tendinae
describe the aortic valve
sits in between the left ventricle and the aorta, three semilunar cusps
What is the cardiac conduction system and what are the features
- Initiates and coordinated contraction of atria and ventricles to pump blood
- Consists of 4 basic components of nodes and conducting fibres
○ Sinu-atrial (SA node)
○ Atrioventricular node (AV node)
○ Atrioventricular bundle (Bundle of His)
○ Subendocardial plexus (Punkinje fibres)
- Consists of 4 basic components of nodes and conducting fibres
Which node is activated first in the cardiac conduction system?
SA node which stims AV node
The myocardium is supplied by which arteries?
left and right coronary arteries
Describe features of the right coronary artery including its branches
goes to right side of the heart and branches into right marginal artery and posterior intraventricular
Describe features of the left coronary artery including its branches
goes to left side of heart and branches into anterior intraventricular (LAD) and circumflex
is there variation across populations in the distribition of coronary arteries?
YES
What are the three tributary veins of the coronary sinus?
small, middle and great cardiac veins
What is the role of the great cardiac vein?
main tributary of coronary sinus, drains areas supplied by left coronary artery
What is the role of the middle cardiac vein?
drains areas supplied by posterior intraventricular branch of right coronary artery
What is the role of the small cardiac vein?
drains right atrium and ventricle
What are the most common sites of artery occlusion?
- anterior IV (LAD) branch of left coronary artery (LCA)
- RCA (right coronary artery)
- circumflex branch of LCA
What structures pass through superior thoracic aperture?
trachea, oesophagus, nerves and vessels
What is the inferior thoracic aperture sealed by?
diaphragm
Which structures pass through openings in the diaphragm? And how do you remember where these enter?
8-10-12 rule
T8 = inferior vena cava
T10 = esophagus
T12 = aortic hiatus (aorta)
How is the diaphragm innervated?
two phrenic nerves that arise from anterior rami of C3-5
C3,4 AND 5 KEEP THE DIAPGHRAM ALIVE
What are the three muscles of the thoracic wall?
- muscles filling the spaces between the ribs (intercostal spaces)
- muscles passing between the ribs and sternum
- muscles spanning multiple ribs
What are the three intercostal muscles, and rank them from superficial to deep.
- External intercostals
- Internal intercostals
- Innermost intercostals
What muscles are involved in inspiration?
contraction of diapraghm
contraction of external intercostal muscles
changes in volume in thorax cause air to flow in
What muscles are involved in expiration?
passive recoil of thoracic wall due to relaxation of diaphragm and external intercostals
What are the two main arteries of thoracic wall?
thoracic aorta and internal thoracic artery
What are the 3 arteries that supply each intercostal space?
- posterior intercostal artery
- 2x anterior intercostal arteries
What are the main two veins involved in the drainage of the thoracic wall?
anterior intercostal veins and posterior intercostal veins
Where do the anterior intercostal veins empty into?
internal thoracic and brachiocephalic
where do the posterior intercostal veins empty into?
azygos venous system
Which node in the axillary lymph node recieves lymph drainage from breast - most risky - should check
pectoral node
Describe the layout of the transverse thoracic plane from anterior to posterior
thymus
great vessels and branches
brachiocepalic veins, SVC
vagus and phrenic nerves, cardiac plexus
trachea, oesophagus
thoracic duct
left recurrent laryngeal nerve
azygos system of veins
What are the four great vessels of the mediastinum?
vena cavae, aorta, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary veins
What do the right and left brachiocephalic veins drain from and then into
the right and left brachiocephalic veins drain blood from head, neck and upper limbs into SVC
What are the major branches of the arch of the aorta?
Brachiocephalic trunk: first and larges branch (divides into right common carotid and right subclavian)
Left common carotid artery is second
Left subclavian artery is third
Which structures are lateral to the right phrenic nerve?
venous structures
Which structures are lateral to the left phrenic nerve?
arterial structures
What is the course of the right vagus nerve?
alongside trachea -> behind lung root -> anterior oesphoagus
What is the course of the left vagus nerve?
gives off L recurrent laryngeal nerve -> behind lung root -> anterior oesophagus
Describe features of the thoracic duct
largest lymphatic vessel
nearly 75% of lymph from the body passes through here (exceptions: right limb, right breast, right lung and right side of head and neck)
roughly follows course of azygos vein
Describe the features of the thoracic duct
largest lymphatic vessel
nearly 75% of lymph drainage other than right upper limbs etc.
roughly follows course of azygos vein
describe the course of the azygos system
azygos vein; forms collateral pathway between SVC and IVC on right side of vertebral bodies T3-T12
hemi-azygos: on left side T0-T12 posterior to thoracic aorta
accesory hemi-azygos: on left T5-T8
