all research methods

Question 1

1.2.1 (AO1) social psychology: questionnaires
give an overview of questionnaires

Answer 1

A questionnaire is a method of data collection, which requires participants to answer a list of questions. Although they are usually conducted either online or on paper (usually through the post), they can be conducted over the phone. In psychology they are known as self-report measures. This is because PP’s are reporting the information that we require from them instead of researcher’s having to manipulate anything. The typical format of a questionnaire is dependent on the researcher and their aim, usually straight-forward questions come first then followed by more complex questions. Questions gathering personal data are placed at the end so that they do not take up the time of the respondent, who may get bored too quickly. For ethical and practical reasons, questionnaires mustn’t be too long. A pilot survey is usually carried out, perhaps using friends and family as respondents, this tests questions for clarity and allows the person conducting the survey to make sure that the required information can be gathered. Data from a questionnaire are analysed and the analysis and their responses can fit into one of the PP’s designs (e.g. repeated measures, matched pairs, independent groups design).

Question 2

(AO1) social psychology: questionnaires
what are open & closed-ended questions?

Answer 2

Questionnaires involve closed-ended questions like, ‘Children must receive vaccines: Agree or Disagree?’ or open-ended questions such as, ‘How do you think others see you?’ Open-ended questions give the respondent a chance to state their attitudes and opinions and give an extended, detailed response whereas closed-ended questions are limited to two answers.

open-ended questions produce qualitative data, closed-ended questions produce quantitative data.

Question 3

(AO1) social psychology: questionnaires
what is qualitative & quantitative data?

Answer 3

questionnaires tend to gather both qualitative and quantitative data, like interviews.

qualitative data involves ideas and opinions. people give extended responses.

quantitative data involves numbers (e.g. saying ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers) or percentages (e.g. percentage of someone saying they would offer a job to someone from the same school they did not know).

• open-ended questions produce qualitative data, closed-ended questions produce quantitative data.

Question 4

(AO3) social psychology: questionnaires
strengths & weaknesses of quantitative/qualitative data

Answer 4

QUALITATIVE DATA

STRENGTHS
- A strength is that they give detailed information about a subject and allow in-depth analysis, which can lead to useful understanding. This is also important because respondents can say accurately what they think about an issue, which increases validity.

WEAKNESS
- One weakness of qualitative data is that they are hard to analyse in order to compare responses. Answers might be different so it means they are difficult to categorise and the results can be long and hard to summarise.

QUANTITATIVE DATA

STRENGTHS
- A strength is that they can be fairly quickly and easily analysed and averages, percentages and other statistics can be calculated. this data can be represented in graphs, charts or tables that can be easily and effectively communicated to others.

• Another strength is reliability. Quantitative data comes from closed-ended questions, which is reliable because it means that the respondents are all answering the same set of questions and giving the same answers (out of a few options) meaning the questions all carry the same meaning.

WEAKNESSES
- One weakness of quantitative data is the risk that respondents may be lying. This manifests itself in a few ways:
(1) demand characteristics: where an individual may respond in a way that they think will help the researcher find what they are looking for. Quantitative data tends to come from controlled studies and are more likely to suffer from DC’s than quantitative data because there is a clear aim, hypothesis and there are more likely to be clues to show what the study is investigating which may influence the respondent.
(2) social desirability bias: when respondents may say what they think is socially acceptable to say in order to appear better in front of a social group.
(3) lying: if questions are listed so respondents are likely to be answering ‘no’ to the questions, the respondent may continue to answer ‘no’ out of habit, which skews the validity of the data.

Question 5

1.2.1 (AO3) social psychology: questionnaires
what research supports the use of the questionnaire method?

Answer 5

ADORNO ET AL. (1950) His California F-scale was an example of a questionnaire where he got PP’s to answer a set of questions which showed him how far respondents agree with statements that coordinate with an authoritarian personality level. These could also be re-tested for consistency, which upholds the value of questionnaires as reliable.

COHRS ET AL. (2012) used standardised questionnaires to test personalities such as right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), which increases the reliability of the data in their research.

Question 6

(AO3) social psychology: questionnaires
strengths & weaknesses of closed & open-ended questions

Answer 6

closed-ended questions

STRENGTHS
- One strength of closed-ended questions is that all respondents give standard answers (e.g. yes, no, agree, disagree) which means numbers can be generated (quantitative analysis) for instance, by counting how many people responded with yes or no and scoring their ratings. Analysis can then be compared fairly with another set of data and percentages and averages can be calculated.

• Another strength of closed-ended questions is that the questions are the same for all respondents, the set of answers and the question wording. If the meaning is the same for all respondents, then the questionnaire is more reliable therefore, using questionnaires with closed-ended questions is reasonably reliable.

WEAKNESSES
- A weakness of closed-ended questions is that it forces the respondent to choose from a set of answers. The respondent may not agree with the prompts (e.g. ‘unsure’ or ‘no’) meaning it may not be accurately measuring their true response. This means that their answers are therefore, not valid.

open-ended questions

STRENGTHS
- One strength of open-ended questions is that respondents are allowed to give detailed responses, rather than being forced into giving an answer from a limited set of options. This means their answers are more informative to the researcher who intends to analyse them and are more valid because it provides what the respondent actually wants to share.

WEAKNESSES
- One weakness of open-ended questions is that they are much more difficult to analyse, because the data is qualitative it is difficult for researchers to calculate averages or formulate tables/graphs for this research.

• A second weakness is that respondents fail to complete their answers to open-ended questions or they become less detailed as the questionnaire progresses. This is because it is time-consuming and may result in the respondent becoming lazy, which affects the overall validity of the study because their answers may lack accuracy.

Question 7

(AO3) social psychology: questionnaires
evaluation of questionnaires

Answer 7

STRENGTHS
- A strength of questionnaires is that they can be repeated accurately because they use: (i) the same set procedures, (ii) the same questions are asked to all of the PP’s, which meas that they are replicable by administering the questionnaire again.

• Questionnaires can be sent via post, which means that they are free from potential researcher bias. This is a strength because it shows that the researcher isn’t able to skew the PP’s responses, meaning that the data is valid and accurate.

WEAKNESSES
- Self-report data may be subject to social desirability bias or demand characteristics. If PP’s bias their responses, it is possible that the reliability and validity of the data is inaccurate.

• Although questionnaires follow a standardised procedure that may seem replicable, the way in which it is administered or delivered may influence the results. For instance, one evening a young female may ask PP’s to take part in the questionnaire in a local shopping centre whereas a male may ask PP’s to take part in their questionnaire at a night club. Differences may arise depending on the situation in which they ask.

Question 8

1.2.2 (AO1) social psychology: interviews
give an overview of interviews

Answer 8

interviews involve asking questions but interviews involve a researcher carrying them out and although there is a series of questions, these can be varied according to responses. the aim of an interview is to find out some detail from a respondent according to the aim of the study. interviews tend to involve a personal situation, often face-to-face although they can be over the phone or online. the face-to-face element allows researchers to expand or clarify if the respondent is unsure. there are different types of interviews:
(1) structured interview
(2) unstructured interview
(3) semi-structured interview

Question 9

1.2.2 (AO1) social psychology: interviews
why might an interview be used instead of a questionnaire?

Answer 9

• if some questions are to be explored in more depth
• when the respondent may need some reassurance
• when access is difficult

*access refers to reaching the PP, which may be difficult physically (e.g. if data is gathered from a child, a mental health patient or from a nusiness venture etc.)

Question 10

1.2.2 (AO1) social psychology: interviews
explain the different types of interviews

Answer 10

(1) structured interview
- closed and predetermined so that the respondent has no options and does not lead the direction of the interview.
a structured interview follows a set format. it is a questionnaire administered by an individual. there might be extra instructions for using the questionnaire such as where and how to expand on the answers. structured interviews are useful at gathering quantitative as well as qualitative data and results can be compared between respondents. structured interviews can be carried out on the phone, face-to-face or via the internet. it is most likely to be strongly planned and therefore, more replicable and possibly yields more valid data.

(2) unstructured interview
- means open for the respondent to lead the questions and the course of the interview.
an unstructured interview involves questions that are not in a set format and which allow the interviewer to explore the area with further questions arising from the respondents answers. unstructured interviews are useful when depth and detail are required and perhaps, less is known by the topic in question so that issues can be explored. qualitative data are gathered.

(3) semi-structured interview
- means some fixed questions and some structure, regarding what will be asked - there is room for the respondent to lead the direction of the questions.
a semi-structured interview has set questions, some of which can be explored further by the interviewer. the semi-structured interview can produce qualitative and quantitative data and can offer insight as well as data that can be compared between the respondents. a semi-

Question 11

1.2.2 (AO1) social psychology: interviews
what type of data is gathered in interviews?

Answer 11

qualitative data.

interviews are usually used when depth and detailed information is required (e.g. cognitive interviewing in policing); therefore, they are likely to contain information like age, gender, personal data etc.

Question 12

1.2.2 (AO1) social psychology: interviews
what must you do with your notes after conducting an interview?

Answer 12

they must be transcribed in full so that the data is readily available for analysis.

Question 13

1.2.2 (AO1) social psychology: interviews
ethical & practical issues when conducting an interview

Answer 13

PP’s must be involved in each stage:
- that they must see the schedule before the interview
- they must agree to the chosen format for recording the interview
- they must see the full transcript (copy) og yhe interview and agree with what was said or had occurred.

Question 14

1.2.2 (AO3) social psychology: interviews
evaluate interviews as a research method

Answer 14

STRENGTHS
- the interviewer can explain questions and explore issues by asking further questions in contrast to a questionnaire, which is limited to the questions written down and the limited space available. when a researcher needs to explain further issues, it is useful.
- interviews obtain in-depth and detailed data that are likely to be valid because it comes from the interviewee themselves. the data are ‘real-life’ and ‘true’ therefore, more likely to be valid.
- if the interview is recorded, it can be tested and analysed by another researcher which increases inter-rater reliability as the researchers come to an agreement.

WEAKNESSES
- when asking questions, interviews may unconsciously pose researcher bias in the way they ask the question. for example, they may put a certain emphasis on the way they speak such as ‘You are not prejudiced are you?’ which may influence the way in which the respondent responds. researcher bias may also manifest itself dependant on the gender of the interviewer, respondent may give different answers if the researcher is male or female.
- researcher may find it difficult to interpret their responses when analysing the data and forming themes because it is so detailed and broad. this may mean it is difficult to maintain objectivity as the themes gathered may be subjective based on the interview.

Question 15

(AO3) comparing questionnaires and interviews

Answer 15

RELIABILITY

(S: structured questions) are the same for each respondent, meaning that they are standardised and therefore more replicable which is likely more reliable.

(W: interviews) each person interviewed separately in different settings and on different occasions and perhaps by a different person means it is difficult to replicate and test for reliability.

VALIDITY

(W: structured questions) are with forced choice answers and are likely to be less valid and yield less true data as they force PP’s to choose from limited options.

(S: interviews) questions can be explained and explored; therefore, likely to give valid and ‘real-life’ ‘true’ data.

SUBJECTIVITY

(S: questionnaires) structured format means it is less open to researcher bias in the analysis and closed questions do not require interpretation meaning it is objective. open questions are likely to give short answers, which gives clearer themes.

(W: interviews) open to bias in analysis as generating themes requires interpretation, which gives rise to subjectivity but analysis can be objective if the steps are made clear.

Question 16

1.2.4 (AO1) social psychology: sampling
what are the 4 different types of sampling techniques?

Answer 16

random sampling is when PP’s are ‘randomly’ recruited free from researcher bias (e.g. by picking names out of a hat that consist of the target population)

stratified sampling is when certain groups need to be represented in a study abd so sample is done to ensure that these groups are found in the sample. the proportion of the sample should match the proportions of the group themselves.

volunteer sampling is when the PP’s select themselves by putting themselves forward as volunteers (e.g. by responding to a researcher’s advertisement)

opportunity sample is using whoever is available with no constraints.

Question 17

1.2.4 (AO3) social psychology: simple random sampling
evaluate the use of simple random sampling

Answer 17

STRENGTHS
- there is no bias in the way PP’s are chosen, everyone has the opportunity to be chosen and no one is systematically excluded from the sample. therefore, the sample is likely to be representative of the target population.
- it is clear to everyone how the sample was chosen. each step of the process can be explained and understood. with random sampling, any possible bas can be explained mathematically and worked out; therefore, it adds to the scientific procedure of the study meaning results and conclusions can be more widely recognised.

WEAKNESSES
- it is difficult to ensure that everyone in the target population/sampling frame is available to be included in the sample, which may cause bias.
- even with random sampling, when everyone has an equal chance of being chosen, there can be bias. for example, if the hypothesis was to examine obedience in male and female soldiers, it is likely that a random sample would not include any female soldiers, which may not be useful.

Question 18

1.2.4 (AO3) social psychology: stratified sampling
evaluate the use of stratified sampling

Answer 18

STRENGTHS
- each group is bound to be represented so conclusions about differences about those groups can be drawn.
- stratified sampling is an effective way to ensure that there is representation from each group.

WEAKNESSES
- it is difficult to know how many of each group to choose in order to make sure that the findings are generalisable.
- the groups set in the study may not be important groups. having the groups already decided means that some people will be ruled out as PP’s, meaning that the sample is not representative.

Question 19

1.2.4 (AO3) social psychology: volunteer sampling
evaluate the use of volunteer sampling

Answer 19

STRENGTHS
- it is more ethical than other methods (e.g. simple random sampling) because the PP’s come to the researcher rather than the researcher seeking them out.
- volunteers are interested and therefore, perhaps less likely to give out biassed information or to go against the researcher’s instructions. there is less likely to be social desirability bias or demand characteristics umless they are so keen to know what the researcher is doing. it is an advantage to have willing volunteers to take part in a study.

WEAKNESSES
- it takes a long time to get a sufficient number of PP’s because the researcher has to wait for volunteers to apply (time consuming).
- because the PP’s select themselves, they might be similar in some way (e.g. a similar personality type) this means the findings may lack generalisability as a self-selected sample may not represent the wider population.

Question 20

1.2.4 (AO3) social psychology: opportunity sampling
evaluate the use of opportunity sampling

Answer 20

STRENGTHS
- it tends to be more ethical because the researcher can judge if the PP is likely to be upset by the study or if they are too busy to take part. other forms of sampling do not give this information readily.
- the researcher has more control over who is asked, so finding PP’s should be quick and efficient because access is not a problem.

WEAKNESSES
- there is more of a chance of bias than other methods. one source of bias, is that researchers have more control over who is chosen and may be biased towards people who are easy to access, such as people they know, they may be biased to choose people who look like themselves, similar age, gender etc. which leads to a biased sample.
- those who are p. 1.2.4 (AO1) social psychology: sampling
PM)V%P002 icked are available and willing to take part in the study, so they are self-selectex;POI) / v d. this would rule out anyone who is unavailable or unwilling, which again causes bias. .

Question 21

1.2.6 (AO1) social psychology: thematic analysis
explain

Answer 21

some respondents present their answers to open-ended questions in different ways and their answers can take different directions. this enables themes to be generated once the data is analysed and this is known as thematic analysis.

thematic analysis means the researcher identifies a limited numebr of themes that reflect their data, by going into a great detail studying their data to develop the themes. coding refers to interpreting and grouping data.

phases of thematic analysis

1. GATHER- qualitative data is gathered using a suitable gathering tool (eg interview or questionnaire)
2. JOURNAL- a reflexive journal is kept throughout. this is to log the process of carrying out a thematic analysis so that the process is kepy transparent and can form a part of the final report.
3. PREPARE- transcribe the data carefully, using no interpretation and prepare the data ready for analysis. this can mean typing notes out into one doc or photocopying notes so they are readily available,
4. APPOINT- appoint coders. the researcher can be a coder but doesn’t have to be. coders might not know the aim of the study, which can help and reduce bias.
5. FAMILIARISE- the data must become well known and familiar to the coders
6. IDEAS- each piece of data has to be identified as an idea and shortened what is said to something more manageable.
7. IDENTIFYING THEMES- from the ideas, the coder will generate themes (eg, ‘nature’ or ‘nurture’ as themes)
8. NAMING THEMES- the themes are then named and the analysis can be reviewed to check when the data fit and to reconsider ideas in light of the themes generated.
9. RELIABLITY/VALIDITY CHECK- review the journal to look for interpretation and put that right so the data are valid. multiple coders can reduce the issue of subjectivity by using inter-rater reliablity to generate consistent themes.
10. REPORT THE RESULTS

Question 22

1.2.6 (AO3) social psychology: thematic analysis
evaluate the use of thematic analysis

Answer 22

STRENGTHS
- thematic analysis is a way of reducing a large amount of data into a manageable summary and conclusion, without losing validity of the data. if the analysis is done well.
- it encourages the researcher to derive themes from the data rather than to impose pre-selected themes. this is likely to achieve better validity.

WEAKNESSES
- researchers often do not explain fully how they arrived at the theme and so a study is not easily judged for its validity.
- another weakness is that identifying some themes may be easy but identifying a limited number of themes that represent the data is much more difficult and requires time and skill from the researcher. the weakness is that it is time-consuming and requires skill.
- the researcher might have themes in mind when they do initial coding, so there may be doubt with the validity. the themes might come from the researcher rather than the data itself, this is a problem because the validity can be questioned as it may be affected by researcher bias.

Question 23

what is an animal experiment?

Answer 23

an animal experiment has an independent variable (IV) that is manipulated to see the effect on the dependent variable (DV). there are strong controls like: environment of the study, age, type of animal, gender etc. the aim is to control all the variables except the IV so that it can be shown that a change in the IV has caused any change in the DV.

Question 24

2.2.2 (AO1) cognitive psychology: independent and dependant variables
explain both

Answer 24

variables are whatever is likely to affect the experiment. they include:
- what is being tested
- what is being measured
- what else is likely to affect the results

(IV) independent variable is changed and manipulated by the researcher.

(DV) dependent variable is measured by the researcher and changes as a result of manipulating the IV.

Question 25

2.2.3 (AO1) cognitive psychology: experimental and null hypotheses
explain both

Answer 25

experimental hypothesis is generated, which is a statement of what is expected. the experimental hypothesis is also known as the alternative hypothesis (alternative to the null hypothesis) and is called ‘experimental’ when the research method is an experiment.

null hypothesis states that any difference or relationship expected is due to chance meaning there is no relationship or difference as predicted.

Question 26

2.2.4 (AO1) cognitive psychology: directional (one-tailed) and non-directional (two-tailed) tests and hypotheses
explain both

Answer 26

hypotheses can be directional or non-diretional.

directional hypothesis states the direction that is expected. it is clear in the directional hypothesis, which way the results are expected to go.
- one tailed.

non-directional hypothesis does not make the claim, the results can go either way.
- two-tailed.

Question 27

2.2.8 (AO1) cognitive psychology: situational and participant variables
explain both

Answer 27

there are other variables that may affect the results of a study and these are known as extraneous variables. examples of EV’s that have to be controlled in an experiment are:

participant variables are those connected with the PP, for example: age, gender, experience and mood of the PP’s.

situational variables are connected with the situation in which the study takes place. for example: temperature, noise, interruptions and light.

Question 28

2.2.6 (AO1) cognitive psychology: operationalisation of variables, extraneous variables and confounding variables

Answer 28

confounding variables are when an extraneous variable is not controlled in a study and it therefore, affects the results of the study.

extraneous variables might affect the result so they should be controlled for.

operationalisation when a variable is defined by the researcher and a way of measuring that variable is developed for the research.

Question 29

2.2.10 (AO1) cognitive psychology: experimenter effects, demand characteristics and control issues
- double/single-blind technique

Answer 29

experimenter effects are things about the experimenter that affect the results, rather than change the IV. cues or signals that might affect the PP’s response could include: tone of voice, verbal or non-verbal cues such as gestures or facial expressions. to avoid this, it is best to get someone else to conduct the experiment rather than the designer.
- (e.g. milgram’s confedarate and ‘experimenter’ in his original 1963 study)

double-blind technique the PP’s are not aware which group they are in or what the study is about. the study is carried out by someone other than the person who knows who is doing what. neither the PP’s or the person running the study knows precisely what is expected.

single-blind technique the PP are not aware of what is expected or the condition that they are in but the person carrying out the study is. the single-bind technique stops PP’s expectations (demand characteristics) from affecting the results but does not stop experimenter effects (researcher bias).

• DOUBLE-BLIND TECHNIQUE IS BETTER!

Question 30

2.2.5 (AO1 & AO3) cognitive psychology: experimental and research designs: repeated measures

Answer 30

when designing a study that uses an experiment or another research method, a decision has to be made in terms of what design to use.

repeated measures design
this is when the PP’s do all of the conditions in a study and all of the conditions are ‘repeated’.

STRENGTHS
- One strength of repeated measures design is that the same PP’s do all the conditions so PP variables are controlled. Each PP does all conditions, so any feature will affect both or all conditions and therefore, will cancel out. for example, it doesn’t matter what characteristics or individual differences a PP has because it has been the same in every condition meaning its cancelled out.
- Another strength is that more data can be gathered because each person does all the condition in comparison to independent groups design. repeated measures may be a better alternative because it is less costly and possibly more ethical.

WEAKNESSES
- One weakness of repeated measures is that there might be order effects. Whichever, condition PP’s do first might be their best performance simply because they are less tired than when undertaking the task in the next condition (fatigue effect). Or PP’s might do the second task better because they know what to do and are better acquainted with the task (practice effect). An order effect can skew the results of the study and therefore, the conclusions drawn from it.
- Another weakness is that there might be demand characteristics which occur when the PP’s responses are affected by what they guess the study is about. They might try and do what they think the researcher wants to find or to please the researcher, which skews the results of the study.

Question 31

how can order effects be reduced in repeated measures design?

Answer 31

counter-balancing which is when the researcher alternates the conditions for each PP. for example, when there are 2 conditions, 1 PP does the first condition followed by the second and the next PP does the second condition followed by the first. order effects may still occur but should cancel out. if PP’s get tired after the first condition then the second PP will reverse this by completing the second condition first.

randomisation the order in which the PP’s do the conditions is randomised. for example, if a study has 2 conditions, a coin could be tossed to see which condition is done first. this should help to cancel out order effects.

Question 32

2.2.5 (AO1 & AO3) cognitive psychology: experimental and research designs: matched pairs design

Answer 32

matched pairs design
uses different PP’s but the PP’s are paired up, one from each group, according to what the researcher thinks are important factors (e.g. age, sex, social class or ethnicity etc.) although there are different PP’s doing each condition, it is treated as if it is repeated measures design because the researcher is trying to use PP’s who are as similar as possible to control the PP variables.

STRENGTHS
- One strength of matched pairs design is that it is similar to repeated measures so PP variables should not affect the findings. If the important PP variables for a study have been matched, then the results should be the same as if the same PP’s had carried out the study.
- Another strength is that beause different people are doing the conditions, there will not be order effects, unlike repeated measures.

WEAKNESSES
- One weakness of matched pairs design is that different people are still used therefore it is impossible to completely eliminate PP variables and these may still affect the results of the study. For example, it may be difficult to precisely match education or background. Matching exactly rarely occurs even with genetically identical twins.
- Another weakness is that it is time-consuming to find PP’s who match each other exactly. More people are also needed which is difficult to obtain.

Question 33

2.2.5 (AO1 & AO3) cognitive psychology: experimental and research designs: independent groups design

Answer 33

independent groups design
this is when PP’s only do one of the conditions and there are different PP’s who complete different conditions.

STRENGTHS
- One strength of IG design is that there are no order effects because different people do different conditions. The strength of independents group design is a weakness to repeated measures.
- Another strength of IG design is that it is less likely that demand characteristics will affect the results because PP’s only complete one condition therefore they are less likely to predict what the researcher wants to find out.

WEAKNESSES
- One weakness of IG design is that PP variables may affect the results. for example, there may be older PP’s in one group compared to the other which may influence the results.
- Another weakness of IG design is that more PP’s are needed because different people do different conditions. This is a weakness because:
- might be more unethical
- sample takes longer to obtain
- study takes longer (time-consuming) or is more difficult to carry out because the PP have to be split into groups and do the study at a different time.

Question 34

2.2.1 (AO1) cognitive psychology: laboratory experiments

Answer 34

there are two types of experiments: laboratory experiments and field experiments.

lab experiments take placed in either a laboratory or a controlled setting, which is unnatural and artificial for the PP. scientific experiments take place in laboratories because one variable (IV) is manipulated and the other variables are kept consistent or controlled to see the effect of the IV on the DV (kept the same). a common design is to have an experimental group and a control group, the experimental group does something whereas the control group does not. the control group provides a baseline measure, which is what the DV would be like without manipulation.

Question 35

2.2.1 (AO1) cognitive psychology: field experiments

Answer 35

field experiments are experiments with as many controls as possible and a manipulated IV but carried out in the field (a natural setting) rather than a scientific, laboratory setting.
sherif et al. is an example of this as he conducted his prejudice study in a boy-scout camp in Oklahoma (Robber’s Cave park).

Question 36

2.2.1 (AO3) cognitive psychology: evaluation of laboratory experiments

Answer 36

STRENGTHS
- One strength of lab experiments are replicable because they follow a standardised procedure with a clearly documented aim, controls and an artificial setting. This is useful because the findings can be tested again since the procedure is reproducible which ensures reliability and consistency of the findings.
- Another strength of lab experiments is that a cause-and-effect relationship can be established between the variables. A lab experiment is the only way of doing this because of the controls where if only the IV is manipulated then any change on the DV must be due to the IV. this shows internal validity because there are no confounding variables; therefore, cause-and-effect can be explained.
- A third strength of lab experiments is objectivity. There are strict controls over all the variables except the IV and DV so nothing should affect the DV except the IV. this reduces the risk of EV’s like situational variables or PP variables and the data is measured in a controlled way that can be repeated by others. this means that there is no subjectivity when interpreting the data which may occur with qualitative data.

WEAKNESSES
- One weakness of lab experiments is that it is an unnatural setting, meaning the experiment lacks ecological validity. by conducting an experiment in a pretensious and artificial setting, it is possible that the PP’s act differently and the setting isn’t representative of a real-life scenario. this suggests that lab experiments lack mundane realism; therefore, it is difficult to generalise or apply the findings to the wider society or population.
- This can also be applied to the behaviour of the PP’s. By participating in unnatural tasks the researchers may not be measuring their ‘real’ behaviour, which results in a lack of validity.

Question 37

2.2.1 (AO3) cognitive psychology: field experiments

Answer 37

STRENGTHS
- One strength of field experiments is that they take place in a more natural environment unlike lab experiments. This means that they are more likely to have ecological validity and mundane realism as the situations mirror real-life more closely than lab experiments, meaning they are more valid.
- Another strength of field experiments is that they still have most of the controls of a lab experiment (e.g. Sherif made sure to randomly assign the boys to different groups, he manipulated the contact between both groups through manipulating scenarios and interactions that were standardised etc.). this means that cause-and-effect conclusions can often be drawn as they have internal validity.

WEAKNESSES
- A weakness of field experiments is that it is harder to control the variables than it is in a lab experiment because the setting is natural. Therefore, features of the setting may affect the results so the results may lack internal validity because they could be caused by something other than the IV.
- Another weaknes is that they are more difficult to replicate than lab experiments. The setting and circumstances are likely to have unique features which are hard to replicate. This is a problem because it is difficult to show that the results are reliable and consistent. Replication may show predictive validity and this is limited in a field experiment with a less standardised procedure.
- A final weakness is that field experiments may be affected by experimenter effects. With the setting not completely controlled, it is possible that the researcher’s may also hint at the aim of the study or give cues which bias the PP’s response.

Question 38

2.2.13 (AO1) cognitive psychology: case study of brain-damaged patients

what are case studies?

Answer 38

case studies are in-depth studies of a single person or a small group that share a single characteristic (like a family). case studies focus on abnormal cases: people with deviant behaviour, mental disorders or unusual gifts. case studies are usually longitudinal studies and take place over a period of time, typically months.

Question 39

2.2.13 (AO1) cognitive psychology: examples of case studies phineas gage & HM case studies

Answer 39

PHINEAS GAGE case study
in 1948, phineas gage, a railroad construction worker in New Hampshire USA had an accident that made him very well known. A bar went through his skill and damaged his brain. His behaviour changed and it was thought to be as a result of the brain damage. The brain damage was to his frontal lobes so it was concluded that the frontal lobes are for problem-solving and restraining emotions like aggression. However, there was no baseline measure of what he was like before the incident and most information/data tended to come from those who knew him.

nonetheless, this case study of brain structure and functioning proved to be influential and helpful to psychological understanding of brain functioning and its role in aggression.

HM case study
Henry Molaison, often referred to as H.M., was one of the most famous case studies in neuroscience. In 1953, at the age of 27, Molaison underwent a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy to treat severe epilepsy. The surgery involved removing parts of his brain, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and surrounding structures. Following the surgery, Molaison experienced profound amnesia, losing the ability to form new memories. Despite this, he retained memories from before the surgery and could learn new skills without consciously remembering the learning process. His condition provided valuable insights into the brain’s memory systems. Researchers extensively studied Molaison for over five decades until his death in 2008. His case highlighted the critical role of the hippocampus and surrounding areas in forming new memories, leading to significant advancements in understanding memory and cognition.

Question 40

2.2.13 (AO3) evaluation of using case studies of brain-damaged patients

Answer 40

STRENGTHS
- Case studies like HM provide in-depth and detailed data, which can also suggest directions for further research. Case studies are typically longitudinal like HM’s case study. He was studied from late 1957 until his death in 2008. This is a strength because it means researchers can closely investigate an individual and monitor their behaviour to aid other areas in psychological knowledge and understanding. Because a case study normally takes a long time to carry out, the participant will get quite used to the researchers and act naturally around them. This reduces the problem of demand characteristics and social desirability bias (but doesn’t entirely remove it, especially if the participant only meets with the researcher for a short period at intervals). For the same reason, researchers get used to the participant and learn to understand and interpret this person’s behaviour. This reduces the problem of ethnocentrism and cultural bias (but again, doesn’t entirely remove it).
- (generalisability counter-balance) ideographic approach in psychology doesn’t try to be generalisable, it looks at individual patients to describe them in detail. if this description is interesting or unexpected, then psychologists can move on to another nomothetic approach (like an experiment or correlation) to produce generalisable findings.
- (reliability counter-balance) standardised procedures are used to gather quantitative data rather than qualitative data which may be subjective. this often comes from: biometric data, which includes brain scans, genetic profiles, fingerprints or blood samples and psychometric data, which often comes from filling in questionnaires or solving cognitive tests like memory tests.

WEAKNESSES
- Case studies rely on qualitative data which may be unreliable. This is because they can be highly subjective through the researcher’s own highly personal impression of the PP.
- ethical issues. it is possible that after studying a PP for so long there is a risk of ethical issues where there is potential for the ethical guideline of integrity and privacy to be broken.

Question 41

3.2.1 (AO1) biological psychology: correlational designs
what are they & features of them

Answer 41

correlational designs involve comparing two sets of data from the same PP’s or two sets of data. once the two scores are obtained, the relationship between the scores are tested.

• can be a positive or negative correlation

FEATURES OF CORRELATIONAL DESIGNS

• no IV or DV, there are two variables of equal importance
• the hypothesis will NOT be about a difference between two conditions, it is about a relationship between two variables.
• the hypothesis could be directional because it could predict a positive or negative correlation.
• a scatter diagram will show whether a correlation is positive, negative or neither

Question 42

3.2.1 (AO1) biological psychology: correlational designs
two types of correlation

Answer 42

positive correlation is when one score rises as the other score rises (eg. as age increases and so does the time it takes to react to a stimulus)

negative correlation is when one score rises as the other falls (eg. as age rises, the average driving speed falls)

Question 43

3.2.1 (AO3) biological psychology: correlational designs
evaluate the use of correlational designs

Answer 43

STRENGTHS
- the same people are providing both sets of data so the data will not be affected by individual differences.
- initial relationships can be discovered, which may not have been realised previously. whenever there are two scaled measures and the same people are producing both sets of data, a correlation test can be carried out. therefore, this is a flexible design and if an unexpected relationship is indicated, it can lead to new research. (eg. Raine et al.)

WEAKNESSES
- correlational designs only indicate a relationship. a correlation cannot show a cause-and-effect relationship, which is a problem.
- the measures might not produce valid data. time in therapy is a clear measure but the benefits of therapy are not easy to quantify. some measures are more valid than others.

Question 44

3.2.1 (AO1) biological psychology: correlational designs
how are correlations analysed?

Answer 44

using spearman’s rank correlation coefficient

Question 45

3.2.3 (AO1) biological psychology: brain scanning techniques
CAT scans

Answer 45

CAT scans use x-rays to produces pictures in slices which can be looked at individually or put together.
CAT scans only look at brain structure

Question 46

3.2.3 (AO3) biological psychology: brain scanning techniques
evaluate CAT scans

Answer 46

STRENGTHS
- CT scans are less harmful than PET scans, which use a radioactive tracer. although x-rays can be harmful if used frequently.
- CT scan can detect changes in physical structures to a good level and so is valuable when looking for things like: tumours, haemorroghes etc. particularly because it produces a 3D image, which is good for diagnosis. it has wide application in general and can be used to study individual brain damage or to help with studying the brain overall.
- CT scans are not harmful and are non-invasive, meaning there is no need to enter the body.
- CT scans have the smallest spatial resolution (how fine the detail is on a scan image), they have a voxel size of about 0.5mm in comparison to PET which has approx. 6mm. this means CT scans are better at showing where a structure ends and where the next structure begins.
- CT scans are relatively cheap (£1 million for the scanner in comparison to PET or FMRI)
- CT scans are relatively quick (5 mins) to produce an image

WEAKNESSES
- CT scans involve x-raying, which can cause damage like cancers. CT scans must be used sparingly as a result to reduce the risk of excessive exposure to radiation.
- CT scans only show structure of the brain not function. this is a limitation because it shows that albeit CT scans various strengths, it lacks the ability to determine brain functioning therefore, it may be a limitative tool and not always appropriate to use.

Question 47

3.2.3 (AO1) biological psychology: brain scanning techniques
PET scans

Answer 47

In a PET scan, the participant is injected with glucose with a radioactive tracer attached to it. The glucose travels around the body, including the brain. Brain areas that are more active take up more glucose, and so the radioactive tracer concentrates in the more active brain areas. The scanner thereby builds up an image of which brain areas are most and least active during a particular period of time. The computer uses different colours to represent different levels of activity. Its ability to investigate brain activity makes PET potentially very useful to psychologists as brain activity can be compared between people doing different types of mental task e.g. thinking of words versus doing mental arithmetic. This might indicate which brain areas are responsible for different mental processes. The pictures of brain structure produced by PET are less detailed than CAT or fMRI, and it is an invasive procedure. A higher dose of radiation is given than with CT/CAT, and the tracer remains in the body, although it decays quickly.

• PET scans are usually used for medical purposes to check the damage made by a stroke or to check nervous system problems.

Question 48

3.2.3 (AO3) biological psychology: brain scanning techniques
evaluate the use of PET scans

Answer 48

STRENGTHS
- PET scanning is reliable because it can be repeated and the same results can be found. his can be tested, meaning that the method is reliable which can contribute to reliable applications.
- PET scans are less succeptible to motion-related artifacts (errors) because of their spatial resolution. they have a spatial resolution of approx 6mm voxels, which is less sensitive to movement and may be a better alternative to fMRI scanning.
- PET scans are a reasonably valid and useful method for looking and investigating brain functioning.

WEAKNESSES
- the use of radioactive tracers are invasive and harmful, meaning there are ethical implications for the individual. there has to be informed consent and reasonable grounds for conducting a PET scan, the scan itself may cause people to panic or feel uncomfortable because it involves having one’s head inside a tube, which may be a claustrophobic experience.
- it is relatively time-consuming considering the experience because it has a temporal resolution of around 5-

Question 49

3.2.3 (AO1) biological psychology: brain scanning techniques
fMRI scans

Answer 49

Like PET, fMRI measures blood flow to different parts of the brain and uses this to generate images of which brain areas are more active than others. This gives it many of the applications and strengths of PET scanning, particularly where it comes to understanding the role of different brain areas in different mental processes. fMRI has a higher spatial resolution than PET, so the images it produces are more detailed. fMRI is now the favoured technique by many researchers because it is non-invasive and there is no exposure to radiation. It is also more practical in many cases because there is no requirement to prepare the radioactive tracers needed for a PET scan. However, small movements by the participant can badly affect fMRI scans whereas PET scans are not so affected. Additionally, PET can be used to map different types of chemical in the brain, whereas fMRI cannot so PET can be used to investigate a wider range of brain functions and behaviours than fMRI.

Question 50

3.2.3 (AO3) biological psychology: brain scanning techniques
evaluate the use of fMRI scans

Answer 50

STRENGTHS
- there is no damage from radiation, unlike CT scans therefore, it is less invasive and harmful. it has been the most frequently used scan since the 1900s because there is no invasion or radiation exposure.
- another strength of fMRI scans is that the detection of changes in blood flow is very precise and even slight changes can be detected. this means that for medical use, fMRI is very good at detecting issues arounf stroke. it is good at looking at issues of brain structure and functioning because of its precise blood flow tracking, meaning it can be good for looking at learning in the brain.

WEAKNESSES
- very succeptible to motion related artifacts because the scanner is sensitive to movement, meaning that the scanner can cause images to blur. this can lead to inaccurate estimations of size and location of different brain areas and the size of activation.
- there are still risks with using fMRI scanning, particularly for those with pacemakers and more generally because of issues like claustrophobia, which may be distressing.
- fMRI scans are time-consuming because a scan takes around 30-40 mins, which may be an issue as it is time-consuming, boring and potentially distressing for the patient.

Question 51

3.2.3 (AO1) biological psychology: twin and adoption studies
why are twin and adoption studies used?

Answer 51

twin and adoption studies are used to study the influence of genes on behaviour. genes and DNA are the biological blueprint for a person’s development. identical twins share the same set of genes whereas non-identical twins share 50% of genes. by comparing identical and non-identical twins with regard to a certain characteristic, it can be seen.what influence genes have.

Question 52

3.2.3 (AO1) biological psychology: twin and adoption studies
twin and adoption studies in relation to the nature/nurture debate

Answer 52

twin and adoption studies relate to the nature-nurture debate, which is about how far a characteristic comes from nature and how far it comes from nurture.

nature is from what we are born with and is controlled by our genes.
- twin studies (identical twins, shared genetics and biological influence)

nurture is what we experience from the environment that we develop in. this includes influence from parents, culture, interactions with others and all other experiences.
- adoption studies

Question 53

3.2.3 (AO1) biological psychology: twin and adoption studies

what are twin studies?

Answer 53

identical twins are monozygotic (MZ) twins as they come from one fertilised egg.

• MZ twins do not share the same environment, even in the womb as they develop differently despite sharing the same DNA
• there are physical differences between MZ twins (eg. fingerprints)
• epigentic modification is the term for how, over time, different environmental influences affect which genes are switched on and off.

this shows DEVELOPMENT in both genes and the environment.

non identical twins are dizygotic (DZ) twins who come from two fertilised eggs.

PURPOSE OF TWIN STUDIES
twin studies compare MZ and DZ twins on certain characteristics to see if there are differences between the MZ twins and the DZ twins. if there are quite strong differences between both sets of twins, then it is possible that the characteristic tends to have a genetic basis.
- when both twins share a certain characteristic, there is said to be a concordance rate (agreement)

Question 54

3.2.3 (AO1) biological psychology: twin and adoption studies

example of a twin study

Answer 54

brendgen et al. (contemporary study for biological psychology)

Question 55

3.2.3 (AO3) biological psychology: twin and adoption studies

evaluate twin studies

Answer 55

STRENGTHS
- applications: Twin studies can tell us whether important behaviours are heritable - which means they are passed down genetically from your parents rather than learned from your environment. This is important for treating disorders like schizophrenia as well as alerting parents to the risks of children growing up with these problems. If “at-risk” children can be identified, then it might be possible to prevent problems occurring with correct parenting, education or healthcare. For example, schizophrenia seems to have a genetic basis, but certain life events must “trigger” the genes; people with a genetic predisposition towards schizophrenia should not abuse drugs or alcohol because this can trigger the illness.
- validity: Twins are an example of a naturally-occurring variable being perfectly changed for study: MZ twins share 100% of their genes, DZ twins share about 50%. Because researchers are not manipulating this variable themselves, it reduces the risk of researcher bias.

WEAKNESSES
- generalisability: twin studies have to use twins as their sample and this is a group that may not be very representative of other children. For one thing, twins are rare (1.5% of UK births) and MZ twins are rarer still (0.5%). We still don’t fully understand the processes that lead to twinning, especially MZ twinning, and there may be other special or unusual features of MZ twins beside their genetic similarities.
- twins may have unusual lives in other ways too. they attract attention and often get treated in the same way even if they have different personalities; they may be mistaken for one another. this may cause them to start behaving more like each other than other brothers or sisters do.
- reductionist: The idea that your genetics entirely shapes the person you grow up to be is biological determinism. However, most psychologists today are not determinists; they think that people are influenced by a mixture of environmental and genetic influences. This limits the usefulness of twin studies because they rarely show a concordance rate of anything like 100%. The best they can show is that concordance is slightly higher in MZ twins than DZ, suggesting that genetics influences this behaviour, but doesn’t entirely cause it.
- validity: There are confounding variables in twin studies. Just because twins share the same home and parents, it doesn’t mean their upbringing has been exactly the same. They may have different friends, interests and relationships and these differences may grow more pronounced as the twins grow older. THe psychological terms for this are that the twins may share the same genotype (biological similarity) but they may not share the same phenotype (social similarity).
- ehics: There is always the risk that twin studies may draw attention to twins and make them feel unusual (or more unusual than they already are). There is a particular risk of children being made to feel “weird” or “different” and the BPS Code of Conduct warns against research that “damages self-confidence”. However, psychologists often argue that there is so much benefit from twin studies that they have a social responsibility to study twins. Moreover, most twin studies only subject twins to the sort of attention and curiosity they already receive anyway as part of ordinary life.

Question 56

3.2.3 (AO1) biological psychology: twin and adoption studies

what are adoption studies?

Answer 56

adoption studies are carried out because the environment of adopted children is not the same as that of their biological familiesm yet they have genes in common. they are conducted to investigate whether environment influences a certain characteristic or whether is is due to genes.

Question 57

3.2.3 (AO3) biological psychology: twin and adoption studies

evaluate adoption studies

Answer 57

STRENGTHS
- applications: Adoption studies can tell us whether good parenting can correct bad genes. Children whose biological parents were drug addicts, alcoholics or criminals may get a “second chance” if they are adopted by families with healthy lifestyles and adoption studies tell us how likely this is. These studies also tell us how ordinary families might raise children not to repeat the mistakes they made, like turning to crime or underachieving at school.

WEAKNESSES
- generalisability: Adoption studies have to use adopted children as their sample and this is a group that may not be very representative of other children. For one thing, these children have been separated from the biological parents, perhaps through tragic circumstances or because their biological parents “gave them up” due to difficult circumstances. Child Psychologists like John Bowlby argue that children are badly affected if they are separated from their mother during a critical period in infancy. If this happens to adopted children, it would make them even less representative of children in general.
- reliability: Adoptions are handled by charities or by state agencies and psychologists have to be “opportunistic” in recruiting children for adoption studies. There will be many extraneous variables at work:
Children may need to be adopted for different reasons (eg immigrant children or abandoned children compared to children whose parents have died)
The children may have spent some time as orphans and this early upbringing might affect them
They may have been fostered to other families before the current family which has adopted them and these earlier parents may have influenced the child

Psychologists try to get round these problems by conducting adoption studies with large samples, so that statistical analysis can “average out” the anomalies. However, this makes adoption studies difficult, time-consuming and expensive to carry out, especially because there aren’t that many adopted children.
- validity: There are lots of confounding variables in adoption studies. Adoption agencies try to match children to adoptive families as similar as possible to their biological family (in terms of race, ethnicity, class, etc) and this makes it harder to tell if upbringing is at work.
- ethics: there is always a danger that adoption studies may create a rift in families, by drawing attention to the differences between the adopted children and their step-brothers or step-sisters, or drawing unfortunate comparisons to the children’s biological parents. This can “create self doubt” which is a risk that the BPS warns about. Careful debriefing is needed in this sort of research.

Social responsibility is important in ethical research. Given that thousands of children are adopted every year (5330 in the UK in 2015), adoption studies benefit society by helping us understand how much (or how little) adoptive parents can do for the children they are raising.

Question 58

4.2.1 (AO1) learning theories: observations

explain structured observations

Answer 58

structured observations refer to a type of observation where researchers watch the behaviour of PP’s in a certain situation. there is manipulation of setting and situation, which makes the observation structured. structured observations are conducted to be replicated and tested.
- control is important as there can then be replication and cause-and-effect can be claimed.
- setting is structured
- often observed through a one-way mirror

why structured observations?
sometimes the behaviour of interest does not often naturally occur, therefore, it needs to be manipulated.

Question 59

4.2.1 (AO1) learning theories: observations

explain naturalistic observations

Answer 59

naturalistic observations capture real-life data in a realistic situation and real behaviour. it takes place in the PP’s natural setting and there is a lack of controls unlike in structured observations.

time & event sampling & tallying
naturalistic observations involve watching behaviour and taking notes. the researcher must, however, decide what behaviour is being watched beforehand and how to make notes and capture the data.

ways of capturing data:

1. TALLYING is a way of making note of the behaviour
(quantitative data)
2. TIME SAMPLING if you use time sampling, you can record behaviour for a set amount of time (eg 5 mins) and then record for another 5 mins.
3. EVENT SAMPLING this means focusing on the event that is being looked at, rather than the time.
(qualitative data: emotions or attitudes)

Question 60

4.2.1 (AO3) learning theories: observations

evaluate the use of naturalistic observations

Answer 60

STRENGTHS
- ecological validity: the setting is natural; therefore, there is ecological validity and the research has high mundane realism (representative of real-life scenarios). also gathers the data it intends/claims to gather.
- detail can be captured in naturalistic observations. observation can potentially capture all the behaviour exhibited at the time (if there is more than one observer). observers can record speech, actions, interactions, body language etc. other research methods tend not to gather as much detail (exc. case studies)

WEAKNESSES
- data gathered in an observational research method tends to lack generalisability because an observation is time specific. it is difficult to generalise findings from that specific situation to other situations even if they are similar.
- the observer makes decisions about what to record, and what categories to use and into which particular category behaviour should be placed. this is an element of interpretation which poses the risk of subjectivity.

Question 61

4.2.1 (AO1) learning theories: observations

explain participant & non-participant observations

Answer 61

PP observations observers are part of what they are observing; they are involved in the activity or situation.

non-PP observations observers are not part of what they are observing. the researcher does not immerse themselves in the activity or situation they are interested in.

Question 62

4.2.1 (AO1) learning theories: observations

covert and overt observations

Answer 62

covert observation PP’s do not know that the observation is taking place, it is being done secretly and PP does not know they are being observed. it can be participant or non-participant observation.

overt observation the PP’s know that the observation is taking place and are aware of the full aspects of the study. it can be participant or non-participant observation.

Question 63

4.2.1 (AO3) learning theories: observations

evaluate the use of covert observations

Answer 63

STRENGTHS
- because the PP’s are unaware of the study, the behaviour being observed is likely to be natural; therefore, covert observations are valid.
- in covert observations, the researcher/observer can maintain a distance (literally and figuratively). the PP’s are then less likely to display DC’s, increasing the validity of the observation.

WEAKNESSES
- covert observations can be unethical. ethical guidelines:
1. informed consent, is not asked for in covert observations
2. distress, PP’s may become distressed
- practical issues, may be difficult for observers to watch

Question 64

4.2.1 (AO3) learning theories: observations

evaluate the use of overt observations

Answer 64

STRENGTHS
- much more ethical than covert observation, (eg. PP’s can give informed consent or given the right to withdraw)
- observer can ask for help in setting up a suitable place for observation.
- PP observers can ask for help in getting data to which they might not usually have access to.

WEAKNESSES
- PP’s may not act naturally because they know they are being observed, DC’s and social desirability bias.

Question 65

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

what methods/designs are used to research mental health?

Answer 65

longitudinal designs

cross-sectional designs

cross-cultural methods

meta-analysis

primary & secondary data

Question 66

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

(AO1) longitudinal designs

Answer 66

longitudinal studies treat ‘time’ as one of their independent variables. it refers to a study that takes place over a long period of time, testing people at different points in time.
- like a repeated measures design

longitudinal studies are used to study developmental trends over time and are often used in child psychology, for example, looking at how a baby develops language over a few years. longitudinal designs follow the same participants or a single participant for a long period of time.

• many longitudinal designs are observations and do not involve manipulating variables.

longitudinal studies recruit a group of people at the same point in time (the cohort). the cohort may be people who are all of the same age. it may be people who all start an activity (e.g. people joining a mental health treatment programme) at the same time or receive a diagnosis at the same time for instance (showing how their illness progresses).

(1) data is taken about the cohort at the start, this is the baseline data
(2) there are usually several test points over the period of the study when the same data is collected again
(3) at the end of the study, there is a final test point
- the test point could be an observation, psychometric or biometric tests, interviews etc.

Question 67

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

(AO1) longitudinal designs
what are the two types of longitudinal design?

Answer 67

Retrospective (or historic) studies take a cohort who all ended up the same way (eg developing schizophrenia), then “work back” through their lives to identify factors in the past that might have caused this.

Prospective studies take a cohort who don’t have anything special in common and follow them to see if they start differing from each other “into the future”.

Question 68

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

(AO3) longitudinal designs
what studies are a longitudinal design?

Answer 68

Bradshaw (1998) carried out a case study of Carol, a young woman with schizophrenia. This was a prospective longitudinal design because it followed Carol’s progress over 3 years of therapy and revisited her again a year after the therapy finished.
- this is a retrospective (historic) longitudinal design because Bradshaw also investigated Carol’s past, such as her previous hospitalisations.

Brown et al. (1986) carried out a prospective longitudinal study of working class women in Islington, North London. The women were interviewed to assess self-esteem and social support then revisited a year later to see if any had experienced stressful life events and suffered depression.

Question 69

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

(AO3) longitudinal designs
sample attrition

Answer 69

sample attrition is when the sample gets smaller because people are ‘dropping out of the study’. this isn’t a problem for case studies but it IS a big problem for prospective longitudinal studies.

reasons for sample attrition:
- Participants move away (and leave no forwarding address)
- Participants get bored of taking part
- Children grow up and stop consenting to take part
- Participants emigrate
- Personal problems (emotional, financial, psychiatric) get in the way of participating
- Participants go to prison or into hospital or become homeless
- Participants die

Question 70

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

(AO3) evaluate longitudinal designs

Answer 70

STRENGTHS
- longitudinal designs follow the same people or person over a period of time so PP variables like individual differences do not affect the results. it’s also likely that following a group of people, they will have had similar experiences.
- applications: another strength of longitudinal designs is that it is a good way of studying or identifying developmental trends. by studying someone or a group of people over a period of time, we can identify developmental trends as researchers repeat tests at regular intervals and compare the findings. for example, if a researcher wants to investigate how a mental illness affects someone’s functioning, they will use a longitudinal design.

WEAKNESSES
- reliability: over a long period of time, the researchers can form relationships with the participants and influence how they develop. Terman found this problem with his ‘Termites’ when he tried to help them with their careers.
- validity: Participants in a longitudinal study are almost always aware of being studied and this introduces problems. Many people are flattered for being selected for a study (especially if they have been selected for their “superior IQ”, like the ‘Termites’). This might make them more ambitious in life.
- sample attrition: there is a difficulty of keeping the PP’s for long enough to draw conclusions about their development or about the issue being studied. PP’s are likely to drop out of the study as they might as they might want to move away or no longer take part. withdrawal of PP’s also means if remaining PP’s share a characteristic, findings are biassed, this affects the reliability.
- there are a number of practical issues with longitudinal studies because they can be expensive, time consuming and data analysis can vary in its strength if the researchers change over time.
- there are also a number of ethical issues because studying PP’s over a long period of time may be intrusive (violates ‘privacy’ in BPS primary principles). if someone has already given informed consent they may also find it hard to drop out later

Question 71

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

(AO1) cross-sectional designs

Answer 71

a cross-sectional design is one where data is collected over a period of time but the difference of people is what is of interest. PP’s of different ages are studied at the same time (rather than one cohort in longitudinal designs). they are then compared against the other group.
- like an independent groups design.

Question 72

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

(AO3) evaluate cross-sectional designs

Answer 72

STRENGTHS
- a cross-sectional design is reasonably cheap, quick and practical in comparison to a longitudinal design. a cross-sectional design requires less commitment (time-wise) from a researcher than in a longitudinal design. this also reduces the costs of researchers.
- PP’s are more easily obtained and more practical. this is because there is less pressure with cross-sectional designs than there is for them to stick with longitudinal studies.
- less ethical considerations with cross-sectional designs because the PP’s are not followed individually.

WEAKNESSES
- cross-sectional designs are not good for finding out the causes of something (e.g. a mental disorder) because they are descriptive research. the data is collected from a snapshot in time meaning it is harder to identify and analyse developmental trends in cross-sectional designs versus. longitudinal designs.
- there is less rich detailed data collected than there is with longitudinal studies with regards to individual PP differences.

Question 73

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

(AO1) cross-cultural designs

Answer 73

cross-cultural designs are carried out by researchers who want to compare some behaviour or attitude in different cultures. it is used when researchers want to look at particular behaviour or pattern of thinking between different cultures. they compare data from the different cultures they are invested in and gather conclusions.

Question 74

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

(AO1) cross-cultural designs

emic and etic

Answer 74

emic is an approach to studying cultures that looks at culture from within it, to find out about its norms and ideas.

etic is an approach to studying cultures that looks at norms and ideas between cultures.

Question 75

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

(AO3) example study of cross-cultural designs