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Biology Chapter 1 > All of Chapter 1 > Flashcards

All of Chapter 1 Flashcards

Chapter 1

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Atoms have what at their core?

A

A nucleus at their core and are surrounded by electrons
- a nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons

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2
Q

Atomic number

A

Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

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3
Q

Protons, neutrons, electrons

A

Protons: positively charged, Neutrons: no charge, Electrons: negatively charged

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4
Q

Mass number

A

Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

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5
Q

Neutral atoms may have diff # of neutrons, and are known as what?

A

Isotopes
- Ex. Carbon-12, Carbon-13 (1 xtra neutron), Carbon-14 (3 xtra neutrons)

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6
Q

What are isotopes?

A

Element that has the same # of protons, or atomic number, but a diff # atomic mass cuz of the change in neutron number!
- most isotopes r stable but decay over time

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7
Q

What are radioactive isotopes/radioisotopes?

A

Has a unstable nuclei that break apart: radioactive - subatomic particles are released as well as some radiation

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8
Q

What are valence electrons?

A

Electrons involved in bonding btw atoms
- possess the highest energy (outermost electrons)

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9
Q

Common uses for radioisotopes? 4 uses

A

C-14: carbon dating, tracing cancer
Ca-45: measures bone formation rate
K-40: fossil dating
Ra-226: cancer treatment

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10
Q

Intermolecular bonds

A

Bonds formed between atoms and interaction of valence electrons
- ionic
- covalent
- polar covalent

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11
Q

What are core electrons?

A

Electrons when under normal reaction conditions are chemically inert

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12
Q

Ionic bonds

A

Exchange or transfer of electrons from one atom to another
- bonding makes atoms more stable
- opposite charges attract each other

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13
Q

Covalent bond

A

Sharing of electrons.
- valence electrons are shared between atoms. usually 2 nonmetals

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14
Q

What are the 4 main types of biochemical reactions?

A
  1. Acid-base/ Neutralization Reaction
  2. Acid-Base Buffer Reactions (not rlly apart of it)
  3. Redox Reaction (Oxidation, Reduction)
  4. Hydrolysis and Condensation (dehydration synthesis) reaction
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15
Q

Biomolecules

A

covalent bonds give structure to biomolecules, and non-covalent bonds give dynamics
- Ex. phosphodiester bonds in DNA give structure to DNA & act as a backbone
- Ex. ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds in protein folding

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16
Q

What are the 4 major macromolecules

A
  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Lipids (Fats)
  3. Proteins
  4. Nucleic Acids
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17
Q

What forms the backbone of biomolecules, and forms covalent bonds with metals

A

Carbon

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18
Q

Polymerization

A

Creates richness of life - holds the molecules

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19
Q

Aqueous Solutions (aq)

A

Can be classified as either acidic, basic, or neutral

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20
Q

Acidic Solutions

A

High concentration of Hydrogen Ions (H+)

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21
Q

Basic Solutions

A

High concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-)

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22
Q

Neutral Solutions

A

Have an equal amount of hydrogen and hydroxide ions

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23
Q

Inorganic

A

Carbon molecules not bonded with hydrogen

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24
Q

Organic

A

Carbon molecules bonded with hydrogen

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25
Q

Most of the biosphere is composed of..

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen

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25
Q

Hydrocarbons

A

Made of only carbon and hydrogen
Ex. methane, ethane, propane (generally non-polar because of low electronegativity)

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26
Q

Pure water undergoes what?

A

Autoionization, where 2 water molecules in every 550 mill reaction with each other to produce a hydronium ion (H3O+) - acidic, and a hydroxide ion (OH-) - basic.

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27
Q

Functional groups and what r the 6 ones?

A

Handles that stick out on biomolecules exhibit particular chemical properties and account for an organic molecule’s reactivity
ex. carboxyl + amino –> peptide bond
- hydroxyl
- carbonyl
- carboxyl
- Amino
- Phosphate
- Sulfhydryl

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28
Q

Intermolecular bonds

A

interactions btw molecules that hold 2 or more molecules to one another. much weaker then intramolecular bonds

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28
Q

London Dispersion forces

A

Weak forces of attraction between all atoms and molecules.

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29
Q

Dipole-Dipole Forces

A

Hold polar molecules together. stronger than london forces

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30
Q

Hydrogen Bonding

A

Very strong dipole-dipole forces that form between the electronegative H of one polar molecule and the electronegative N, O, or F of another.

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31
Q

Water molecules are held together by..

A

Hydrogen bonds. which are actually forces between molecules and not true bonds
- due to the polar covalent bonding within each molecule, water will have a positive and negative pole attracting each other.

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32
Q

Water is a solvent and dissolves substances easily, why?

A

It’s because of the polarity.
- when ionic solids dissolve, the anions and cations dissociate (ionic bonds are broken)

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33
Q

Insoluble

A

Substances that cant dissolve in water

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34
Q

Hydrophilic

A

If a substance is polar, it will dissolve in water and form hydrogen bonds
Ex. salts

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35
Q

Hydrophobic

A

If a substance is nonpolar, it will not dissolve in water, nor form hydrogen bonds
Ex. fats and oils

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36
Q

prop of water: Cohesion

A

Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with one another
effect: High surface tension

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37
Q

prop of water: Adhesion

A

Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with other polar materials
Effect: capillary action causes water to creep up a narrow glass tube and paper.
Ex. Transpiration

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38
Q

prop of water: High density at 4°C

A

Below 0°C, water molecules form a crystalline lattice. H-bonds spread apart, low density.
Effect: ice floats on liquid water allowing for aquatic life in winter

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38
Q

prop of water: High Specific Heat Capacity

A

Hydrogen bonding causes water to absorb much heat before its temp. increases & also causes it to lose huge amounts of heat before its temp. decreases
Effect: temperature moderation. Helps organisms maintain a constant body temperature

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39
Q

prop of water: High Specific Heat of Vaporization

A

Hydrogen bonding causes liquid water to absorb a large amount of heat to become a vapor (gas)
Effect: evaporation cooling. Allows for organisms to dissipate body heat by evaporation from skin and tongue

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40
Q

acid is a proton donor or acceptor?

A

proton donor

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41
Q

base is a proton donor or acceptor?

A

proton acceptor

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42
Q

Polar Functional Groups

A

Alcohols (-OH) and Carboxyls (-COOH) are polar due to the electronegative Oxygen. so sugars and alcohols are very soluble (hydrophilic) in water since they have polar hydroxyl groups

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43
Q

Acidic Functional Groups

A

The carboxyl (-COOH) group will make a molecule acidic, hence the term ‘carboxylic acidddd’

44
Q

Basic Functional Group

A

The Amine (-NH2) group will make a molecule basic

45
Q

Isomer

A
  • organic compounds w the same molecular formula but diff structures
  • glucose, galactose, and fructose are all examples of an isomer
  • all share the same formula C6H12O6, but different structures
46
Q

Structural isomer

A

two or more compounds with the same atoms bounded differently
ex. glucose and fructose

47
Q

Steroisomers

A

two or more compounds with their atoms bonded the same way but arranged differently in space

48
Q

Stereoisomers: Geometrical isomers

A

Different physical properties (melting point) but same chemical properties
Ex. Glucose and galactose
- glucose has a hydroxyl group on carbon 4 below the plane of the ring
- galactose has one above the place of the ring
- alpha and beta glucose are dis

48
Q

Stereoisomers: Optical isomers (enantiomers)

A

Mirror images, have the same physical & chemical properties but differentiate through enzymes and proteins in the cell
- occur when a carbon atom is bonded to four different atoms or groups
Ex. our hands; glove only fits on one hand, like right on right hand the same way biomolecules cant interact with a specific optical isomer of a compound but cant fit the other

48
Q

Monomers

A

Building blocks, repeated small units

49
Q

Polymers

A

Long molecules built by linking repeating building blocks in a chain

50
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Largest of organic molecules and most abundant
- most immediate source of energy for cellular respiration

51
Q

Oligosaccharides (few sugar units)

A

Contains two (disaccharides) or three sugar monomers

51
Q

Monosaccharides

A

Simplest form of a carbohydrate
- 3-7 carbon long
- names usually end in -ose
- glucose, galactose, fructose

52
Q

Sucrose –> a-glucose + b-fructose

A

1-2 Glycosidic linkage

52
Q

Maltose –> a-glucose + a-glucose (or b-glucose)

A

held together w/ 1-4 glycosidic linkage

52
Q

Glycosidic linkages (oligosaccharides)

A

Covalent bonds formed through a condensation/dehydration synthesis reaction that links monosaccharides into oligosaccharide

53
Q

Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis Formula

A

Dehyrdation synthesis: C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 –> C12H22O11 –> H2O

Hydrolysis: C12H22O11 + H2O –> C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

54
Q

Lactose –> b-glucose + b-galactose

A

found in milk

55
Q

Polysaccharides

A
  • Polmer of monosaccharide subunits, linked together in the same way; condensation reactions producing glycosidic bonds
  • Energy storage (starch and glycogen) and structural support (cellulose and chitin)
56
Q

Starch

A
  • produced by plants
  • stored in chloroplasts, amyloplasts and other plastids
  • mixture of amylose and amylopectin
57
Q

Amylose

A
  • straight chain polymer of a-glucose w/ 1-4 glycosidic linkages
  • tends to form a-helix shape in water due to hydrogen bonding
  • slightly soluble
58
Q

Amylopectin

A
  • Branched-chain polymer of a-glucose
  • 1-4 glycosidic linkages (main chain) and 1-6 linkages (branch points)
  • insoluble in water due to hydroxyls interaction with water due to large number of branch points
59
Q

Glycogen

A
  • produced by animals and stored in liver and muscles
  • same linkages as amylopectin but more branched –> higher number of 1-6 linkages
60
Q

Cellulose

A
  • Major component of cell walls
  • structural forms of polysaccharides
  • straight chain polymer with b-glucose held together by 1-4 glycosidic linkage
61
Q

Acid-Base Buffer Reaction

A

Chemical systems that resist changes in pH. they are substances that can donate H+ ions when they are required and remove them when there are too many in a solution

61
Q

Redox Reaction

A

Oxidization: atom, ion, molecule loses electron (RA: reducing agent)
Reduction: atom, ion, molecule gains electron (OA: oxidizing agent)

62
Q

Hydrolysis Reaction

A
  • opposite of condensation reactions
  • larger molecules are broken down
  • catabolic since they break apart large molecule
63
Q

Chitin

A
  • 2nd most abundant organic material in the world
  • used in hard exoskeleton of insects and lobster and in cell walls of fungi
  • similar to cellulose except a nitrogen-containing group is attached to carbon-2
63
Q

Acid-Base Neutralization Reaction

A

transfer of hydrogen ions btw molecules
acid: high concentration of hydrogen ions (H+_=)
base: high concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-)
neutral: equal amount of (H+) and (OH-)

63
Q

Condensation (Dehydration synthesis) Reaction

A
  • formation of water by removing 2 hydrogen molecules and 1 hydrogen molecule
  • require energy
  • Anabolic cuz they form larger molecules by joining smaller ones
64
Q

Lipids (fats)

A
  • Hydrophobic, non-polar, insoluble in water
  • slippery, oily, waxy
  • fats are large macromolecules made from smaller subunits, they are not polymers: not a continuing chain
65
Q

Reducing Sugars

A
  • Sugars that have a free anomeric carbon can be oxidized
66
Q

What are the 4 families of lipids?

A
  1. Fats
  2. Phospholipids
  3. Steroids
  4. Waxes
67
Q

Fats: Tricylglyceros/Triglycerides

A
  • 3 fatty acids attached too glycerol via a condensation reaction
  • fat molecules don’t retain their acidic properties once esterlinkage is formed, become large polar molecukes
  • fatty acids are 16 or 18 carbon atoms long
  • more carbon atoms, more nonpolar the molecule is
68
Q

Triacylglycerol formation

A
  • condensation reaction between a hydroxyl group of glycerol and the carboxyl group of a fatty acid
  • forms an ester linkage
  • not a true polymer
69
Q

Saturated fats (bad)

A
  • produced by animals
  • hydrocarbon chains saturated with H atoms
  • contributes to cardiovascular disease
70
Q

Unsaturated Fats (good)

A
  • contains one or more polar bonds
  • polyunsaturated double bonds
  • monounsaturated - almonds, avocado, cashews (any type of nuts), olive oil
  • produced by plants and fish
  • linked to a decline of inflammation in the body - less heart disease
71
Q

Hydrogenation

A
  • industrial process where H-atoms are added to double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids –> semi-solids
  • trans fats cant be broken down
72
Q

Phospholipids

A
  • glycerol molecule attached to 2 fatty acid chains, and a phosphate
  • amphipathic hydrophilic heads (phosphate group) and hydrophobic tails (fatty acids)
  • when in water, they form spheres called micelles or produce bilayers (liposomes)
73
Q

Steroids

A
  • compact hydrophobic molecules containing 4 fused hydrocarbon rings and several functional groups
  • diff steroids have diff functional groups attached to
  • lacks a fatty acid chain
74
Q

Cholesterol

A
  • Precursor of all steroid hormones (ex. sex hormones), vitamin D, bile salts
  • present in cell membrane
75
Q

Waxes

A
  • long-chain fatty acids linked to alcohols or carbon rings
  • hydrophobic with firm, pliable consistency
  • used as waterproof coatings by plants (leaves, stems, etc)
76
Q

Lipoprotein

A

protien-lipid complexes that carries fat in the blood

77
Q

What is HDL?

A

High-Density Lipoprotein
- good cholesterol
- high protein/fat ratio
- scavengers
- collect fat from body –> liver (opposite for LDL)

78
Q

What is LDL?

A

Low Density lipoprotein
- bad cholesterol
- high fat/protein ratio
- transports fat from liver –> body

79
Q

Omega fats

A

essential fatty acids that cannot be made by the body
- ex. cats need omega-3 oils in their diet since they don’t produce omega fats which is essential

80
Q

Protein

A
  • large molecule that has many amino acid subunits that are joined by peptide bonds folded into a 3D shape
81
Q

Primary (1°) Structure

A
  • linear structure
  • slight change in amino acid sequence can affect proteins structure and its function
  • can cause serious disorders
    sicklel asmmeia
82
Q

Seconday Structure

A
  • “local folding”
  • alpha helix and beta pleated sheet
  • folding along short sections of polypeptide
83
Q

Tertiary (3°) Structure

A
  • “whole molecule folding”: interactions btw distant amino acids
84
Q

Quaternary (4°) Structure

A
  • more than one polypeptide chain bonded together: only then does polypeptide become functional protein
85
Q

Nucleic acid

A
  • directs growth and development of every living organism
  • DNA, mtDNA, RNA, and ATP
  • DNA and RNA are polymers that are made up of monomer units called nucleotides
86
Q

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

A
  • source of genetic info
  • directs cellular activity
  • desoxyribose sugar, 4 nitrogenous bases, phosphate group
87
Q

Nitrogenous bases

A
  • 4 diff ones found in DNA
  • divided into Pyrimidines & purines
  • Purines have 2 rings, adenine and guanine
  • Pyrimidines have 1 ring, thymine and cytosine
  • to rmbr pyrimidines keep da y’s together (pyr, thy, cy)
88
Q

Base pairing rule (nitrogenous bases)

A
  • adenine always binds w thymine w 2 H-bonds
  • guanine always bonds w cytosine w 3 H-bonds
  • A=T requires less energy to separate than G=C
89
Q

RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

A
  • polymer made up of nucleotides
  • composed of ribose sugar, phosphate group, and 4 nitrogenous bases
  • Uracil replaces thymine in RNA
  • RNA is single stranded
  • synthesized in the 5’–>3’ direction. (condensation reaction)
90
Q

ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)

A
  • important nucleic acid composed of a single nucleotide
  • a monomer unit that is made up of a nitrogen base called adenosine, a ribose sugar, and 3 phosphate groups
  • energy-providing molecule
  • other forms : ADP (diphosphate), AMP (monophosphate)
91
Q

Enzyme

A
  • biological catalyst that speeds up reactions
  • they r globular proteins
  • w/o the presence of enzymes, biochemical reaction would not occur fast enough to sustain life
92
Q

Substrate

A
  • molecule/reactant that will undergo an enzymatic reaction
  • binds to active site of an enzyme, fits in the enzyme nicely
93
Q

Active site

A
  • region of the enzyme that binds to the substrate
94
Q

Carboxyl group

A

organic acids

95
Q

Carbonyl group

A

Aldheydes, Ketones

96
Q

Hydroxyl group

A

Alcohols

97
Q

Amino group

A

amino acids

98
Q

Phosphate group

A

Nucleotides, nucleic acids

99
Q

Sulfhydryl group

A

many cellular molecules

100
Q

Disaccharide

A
  • carbohydrate molecule made from two monosaccharides
  • maltose
  • sucrose
  • lactose
101
Q

Monosaccharide

A
  • simplest form of carbohydrate, one simple sugar unit
  • glucose
  • galactose
  • fructose
  • ribose
  • deyoxyribose
102
Q

Polysaccharide

A
  • molecule that contains many linked monosaccharides
  • starch
  • glycogen
  • cellulose
  • chitin

Biology Chapter 1 (3 decks)

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