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all lectures from anna Flashcards

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1
Q

laws of nature =

A

scientific theories

mathematical models + equations

relations between physical quantities

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2
Q

Laws as paradigm knowledge =

A

seen as highest degree of scientific knowledge

also outside of science

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3
Q

Why Natural Science dominates philosophy of science?

A

few terms that explain more phenomena → simplicity

“simpler” images of world

most developed

iconic role in society

social & historical power

delegates reflection to others

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4
Q

Commonsense view of Science =

A

science is based on facts

facts are claims about the world that can be established through careful use of senses

reasoning takes us from factual basis to laws and theories

the resulting knowledge is securely established and objective

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5
Q

What are two scientific activities?

A

doing observations

formulating theories

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6
Q

what is the relation between theory and observation?

A

theories explain and predict observations

observations test theories and help decide between theories

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7
Q

Commonsense (Naive view) view assumptions =

A

Facts are directly given to careful,, unprejudiced observers via senses

Facts are prior to and independent of theory

Facts constitute a firm and reliable foundation for scientific knowledge

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8
Q

Problem of commonsense view 1)

A

-observations as subjective, passive, fallible

  • against the common sense view: what you see is not the same as what I see

→ it depends on knowledge and experience

→ observation statements may differ

→ facts are not unproblematically + directly given to observers

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9
Q

Observations are fallible = and why?

A
  • scientists disagree about observations
  • background theory & technological advances needed
  • sometimes observations are fallible because of theory or technology

→ theories are subject to revision

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10
Q

Problem of commonsense view 2)

A

Theory-laden observations

  • facts do not precede theory
  • our experiences often depend on theories we already hold

→ we don’t know which facts to look at if we don’t have a theory (we do observations that help answer our theory)

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11
Q

practical interventions =

A
  • make observations more objective

arranging the observable situation in such a way that the observation statement does not rely on subjective/cultural/ perspective influences

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12
Q

what are 3 characteristics of a good observation?

A

(active + public but still fallible)

consistency (do it same way every time)

repeatability (someone else can do it too)

compatibility with a good theory

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13
Q

problem with the commonsense view 3

A

-deduction of predictions from theory

General form:

P1: laws and theories

P2: initial conditions

P3: Predictions and explanations

?

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14
Q

Experiment=

A

practical interventions that isolate the process under investigation by eliminating other influences

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15
Q

what are 4 characteristics of a good experiment?

A
  • compatible with a good theory
  • routine, objective procedures
  • don’t rely on fine subjective interpretation
  • consistent and repeatable outcomes
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16
Q

what are 2 problems with experiments?

A
  • eliminating spurious influences is difficult (need to know a lot about them and how to eliminate)
  • can be faulty if knowledge informing them is faulty
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17
Q

Experiments are fallible when…

A
  • outmoted by new technology
  • rejected because of advancing understanding which shows experimental setup is inadequate
  • irrelevant because of advances in theory
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18
Q

Experiments are rejected/inadequate/irrelevant when…

A
  • setup does not succeed in isolating process under investigation
  • measurement methods used that are insensitive/unreliable
  • experiment becomes understood to be unable to solve the question
  • theoretical advances: question becomes discredited
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19
Q

How does Science proceed from particular observations to general theories?

A

Observation → Facts → Theory through induction

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20
Q

Deductive reasoning =

A

→ the logically derivation pf a conclusion from premises

logically valid argument

doesn’t add to our knowledge

statement about all to statements about some

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21
Q

Logical validity =

A

an argument is logically valid if and only if it is impossible that the premises are true and the conclusion is false (if premises are true then conclusion must be true)

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22
Q

Inductive reasoning=

A

(common sense view)

not logically valid

statements about some to statements about all

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23
Q

Underdetermination=

A

when two theories are empirically equivalent meaning that both fit the data equally well → data isn’t rich enough to help us decide between two theories

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24
Q

what are 2 solutions for underdetermination?

A
  • make new predictions → explore where theories aren’t empirically equivalent and then make observations for those that aren’t in common
  • pragmatic criteria: a theory might be better than another for reasons outside empirical adequacy e.g. it’s simpler but explains facts equally well
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25
Q

what are the 3 characteristics of laws?

A
  • mathematical equations
  • concise and simple often elegant
  • universal in scope
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26
Q

what is the regularity view of laws?

A

→ laws are descriptions that just say what happens to be the case

  • true universal generalization about specific events
27
Q

necessity view of laws=

A

→ laws say not just what the case is but also what must be the case

  • descriptions of necessary relations between entities, properties or events
28
Q

Explanation=

A

→ an answer to a why question

  • gives us understanding of why things are as they are
  • must be true to have status of explanation (otherwise its a pseudoexplanation)
29
Q

Explanandum=

A

(explananda)

that which is to be explained

30
Q

Explanas=

A

(explanantes)

that which does the explaining

31
Q

Prediction vs. explanation

A

both can take a deductive form

P1: If A then B

P2: A

C: Therefore B

→ premises need to be true for an explanation but not for prediction

32
Q

what are the 2 of Hempel’s models of explanation?

A

Deductive nomological model (DN)

Inductive statistical model (IS)

33
Q

DN Model=

A

an explanation is:

  • a valid deductive argument
  • (formed) from true premises
  • includes at least one law or true generalization and description of some particular facts
  • provides description of the fact that is to be explained

Structure:

  • L1…Ln (laws)
  • C1… Cn (Facts)
  • E: (Explanandum)
34
Q

what are the objections of the DN model?

A

the DN model does not rule out explaining a cause on the basis of its effec

also does not rule out an event on the basis of irrelevant info

→ model is too lax (not sufficiently strict)

35
Q

IS Model=

A

an explanation is an argument that establishes that the explanandum had high probability of occurring

  • uses probable, not certain reasoning (inductive)
  • gives understanding for explanandum
36
Q

what are the problems of the IS model ?

A

too restrictive

→ some good explanations do not make the explanandum highly likely

37
Q

Lessons learned from Hempel:

A

an explanation should track causes, not merely state sufficient conditions for occurrence (DN model fails requirement)

38
Q

Causal mechanical model=

A

explanation of event E is a description of part of the causal interactions and processes that led up to E

a causal-historical account

39
Q

causal interaction=

A

spatio temporal intersection between two causal processes that modifies both = when two objects intersect in spacetime

40
Q

Causal process=

A

physical process able to transmit a mark in a continuous way - something that is extended in space time

41
Q

what is the problem with the causal mechanical model?

A

difficult to obtain a full causal mechanical explanation (too many contributing factors)

42
Q

to falsify=

A

refute, empirically prove that a hypothesis is false

43
Q

falsifiability=

A

the receptiveness of a theory to being falsified

44
Q

falsification=

A

act of falsifying a theory F

45
Q

Falsificationism=

A

Popper’s claim that a scientific method consists in falsifying a Hypothesis

46
Q

How to test a hypothesis (Popper)?

A
  • usually not testable in isolation (too abstract, theoretical)

→ we have to generate observational implications or predictions which we then test

Hypothesis H implies prediction O

we check whether O is true

we draw conclusions about adequacy of H

47
Q

what are two outcomes of testing hypothesis?

A

O is true

→ but H could still be false (possibly another mechanism caused O)

→ does not give us any guarantee of truth value of H

→ confirmation is not deductively valid

O is false

→ then H must be untrue

→ if mechanism posited by H exists then O must obtain

→ guarantees H is false

→ falsification is a valid argument scheme

48
Q

Science according to Popper=

A

rejects induction by rejecting confirmation

→ took David Hume’s induction problem to be unsolvable

scientists can only attempt to falsify Hypothesis

49
Q

Scientific knowledge (Popper)=

A

a series of not yet falsified hypotheses (not a collection of true/confirmed statements)

50
Q

Scientific progress (Popper)=

A

the elimination of false theories

51
Q

Where to hypotheses come from?

A

any source of inspiration (dreams, observations, esoteric theories)

52
Q

what are the two stages of scientific work? and explain them.

A

Context of discovery

  • stage of proposing a hypothesis
  • no rules or standards
  • de facto thinking process

Context of justification

  • stage in which H is tested
  • logic and rules
  • makes science objective
  • de jure defence of correctness of thought
53
Q

Demarcation of science=

A

(what distinguishes science from pseudoscience?)

practitioners must be able to say which observation would falsify their Hypothesis or which outcomes are excluded by theory → otherwise the discipline is pseudoscience

statements that take risk of being falsified = good and scientific

(theories don’t have to be falsified they just have to be falsifiable!)

54
Q

Popper criticism:

A

Not as straightforwards as P assumed → H only generates predictions when combined with auxiliary assumptions + it’s difficult to pin blame for failed prediction on a single hypothesis

Doesn’t accord with scientific practice → researchers make ad hoc adaptations to theories in order to avoid falsification + dogmatism can have methodological values → sticking with a theory and making modifications

Popper ignored possible ways to “save” induction and the confirmation of theories → pragmatic justification of induction → corrobaration (acknowledged a week form of confirmation)

Some valuable scientific H. don’t seem falsifiable → may eliminate examples of good science

55
Q

what are the Pros and Cons of falsification?

A

Pro:

simple,logical model of science

scientists as creative , undogmatic , risk-taking (appealing)

Con:

narrow view of science

underestimates complexity of o and h testing

ignores mechanisms of h confirmation and empirical confirmation

56
Q

what was the Image of Science before Kuhn?

A

Structure:

  • theoretical terms have clear and stable definitions
  • empirical data provides objective test of adequacy of theory (Naive view of science, Poppers view)

History:

  • growth of knowledge is continuous and accumulates
  • all scientists in history share same norms of rationality (norms of what counts as evidence, good observation)
57
Q

Paradigm=

A

a conceptual framework which shapes thinking and work of scientists and defines a period of “normal science” in a branch of science

Consist of :

assumptions about the world as studied by that science

examples of how to solve problems

a style of theorizing

58
Q

Life within a paradigm;

A
  • scientists solve puzzles within a paradigm by imitating examples
  • a paradigm gives clear norms for progress (new discoveries), professional stability/career, coordination, concentration of effort
  • strict boundaries to creativity
59
Q

How did paradigms end ?

A
  • when scientists find radically new data that cannot be explained within the current paradigm
  • sequential phases : new data as anomaly; explanation is necessary; current paradigm is inadequate → scientific revolution
60
Q

Scientific revolution characteristics?

A
  • scientists focus on new data and sketch a new paradigm based on it
  • period of revolutionary crisis (split scientific community in conservative and progressive)
  • social process of paradigm shift
61
Q

what is incommensurability and what are the 3 types of this?

A

lack of shared standards

not comparable

  • according to Kuhn, subsequent paradigms are incommensurable + not just different

3 types:

semantical

observational

methodological

62
Q

semantical Incommensurability=

A

meaning of terms are gotten from the paradigm and differ depending on the paradigm (different meanings)

→ impossible to translate between paradigms, failure to communicate, no clear logical relations between paradigms

63
Q

observational Incommensurability=

A

concerning sensory perceptions

→shaped by paradigm we do science in → we see different things in different paradigms

(Gestalt switch, ambiguous figures)

  • ontological consequences → scientists exist in different worlds, rejection of realism, “different worlds”
64
Q

methodologial Incommensurability=

A

concerning norms of rationality and progress

→ each paradigm has their own view

→ no paradigm independent criteria for theory choice or norms for scientific progress

Philosophy of Science and the City (6 decks)

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