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All chap definition Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Mitotic cell division

A

Involves the process of nuclear division called mitosis, followed by a cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis

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2
Q

Meristematic tissues

A

Found in terminal buds, the vascular cambium and cork cambium

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3
Q

Mitosis definition

A

the process of nuclear division which results in the formation of two genetically identical daughter nuclei

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4
Q

Binary fission

A

Cell division by asexual reproduction which produces two new genetically identical organisms

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5
Q

Chromosomes

A

Thread-like structure in every cell nucleus

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6
Q

Chromosomal number

A

The constant number of chromosomes present in the cells of each species of an organism

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7
Q

Diploid

A

2n

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8
Q

Haploid

A

n

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9
Q

Somatic cell in human body

A

Has 46 chromosomes

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10
Q

Gamete/ Reproductive cells in human body

A

Has 23 chromosomes

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11
Q

Diploid number of chromosomes

A

The presence of two sets of chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell

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12
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

The two chromosomes in each pair have the same structural features

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13
Q

Member of each pair of homologous chromosomes

A

Homologue

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14
Q

Cells with two sets of homologous chromosomes

A

Diploid cells

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15
Q

Cells which contain only one set of chromosomes

A

Sex chromosomes

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16
Q

Duplicated chromosome

A

Contains two sister chromatids

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17
Q

Chromosome

A

Consists of DNA molecule and protein

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18
Q

Chromatin

A

The chromosomes are not condensed and visible as thread-like structures

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19
Q

Daughter chromosome

A

When two sister chromatids separate to become an independent daughter chromosome during mitosis

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20
Q

Centromere

A

Narrow region in the centre of a chromosome

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21
Q

Interphase

A

The stage at which cells grow larger and prepare for cell division

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22
Q

Centrosomes

A

A pair of centrosomes is formed in the cytoplasm

Found in animal cells only

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23
Q

Centrioles

A

Each centrosomes consists of a pair of centrioles

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24
Q

Metaphase plate

A

The centromeres of all the chromosomes are lined up on the equator of the cell

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25
Q

Cell cycle

A

Interphase

M phase/ Mitotic cell division

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26
Q

Interphase

A

G1 phase
S phase
G2 phase

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27
Q

M phase/ Mitotic cell division

A

Mitosis

Cytokinesis

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28
Q

Mitosis

A

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

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29
Q

Cytokinesis

A

The cytoplasm of the cell divides through a process following mitosis
Process of cytoplasmic division

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30
Q

Cancer

A

A disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis due to severe disruption to the mechanism that controls the cell cycle

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31
Q

Tumour

A

An abnormal mass of cells

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32
Q

Cloning

A

The process of producing clones of genetically identical copies of a cell, tissue or an organism

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33
Q

Animal cloning

A

Involves the transfer of the nucleus from a somatic cell to an ovum or embryonic cell with the nucleus removed

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34
Q

Tissue culture technique

A

Involves the growth of cells or tissues outside the organisms in a suitable culture medium, which contains nutrients and growth hormones

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35
Q

Explants

A

Cut out of small pieces of plant tissues

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36
Q

Protoplasts

A

Naked cells without cell walls

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37
Q

Culture medium/ Growth medium

A

Consists of a complex mixture of glucose, amino acids, minerals and other substances required for the growth of tissues

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38
Q

Aggregrates of cells

A

The aggregrate of cells develop into a callus

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39
Q

Callus

A

An undifferentiated mass of tissue

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40
Q

Transgenic plants

A

Carry a foreign gene that has been introduced into their genetic constitution so that they possess new and different traits

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41
Q

Meiosis

A

A process of nuclear division that reduces the number of chromosomes in daughter cells to half that of the parent cell

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42
Q

Synapsis

A

Homologous chromosomes come together to form pairs of bivalents through synapsis

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43
Q

Bivalent

A

Each bivalent consists of a four-part structure

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44
Q

Tetrad

A

A tetrad consists of two homologous chromosomes, each of which is made up of two sister chromatids

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45
Q

Crossing-over

A

Non-sister chromatids exchange segments of DNA

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46
Q

Chiasmata

sing. Chiasma

A

The points at which segments of chromatids cross over

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47
Q

Circulatory system

A
  1. Delivers nutrients and oxygen to cells
  2. Carries waste products away from the cells
  3. Protects the body from infections
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48
Q

Blood

A

A type of connective tissue made up of plasma, blood cells and platelets

The medium of transport in humans and animals

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49
Q

Heart

A

Function as a muscular pump that circulates the blood throughout the body

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50
Q

Blood vessel

A

Consist of arteries, capillaries and veins that are connected to the heart to deliver blood to all body tissues

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51
Q

Haemolymph

A

A blood-like nutritive fluid which fills the entire body cavity and surrounds all cells
Transports water, inorganic salts and organic compounds throughout the haemocoel

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52
Q

Haemocoel

A

body cavity

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53
Q

Blood function

A

Regulates

  1. pH of body fluids
  2. The body temperature
  3. The water content of cells
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54
Q

Protection from blood

A

Protect us from
1. Excessive blood loss in an injury through the mechanism of blood clotting
It helps to heal wounds

  1. From diseases by helping to fight against infections
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55
Q

Blood plasma

A

The main transport medium in the body

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56
Q

Leucocytes

Granular or Agranular

A

Colourless and have nuclei and mitochondria
Irregular in shape
Made by stem cells in the bone marrow

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57
Q

Granulocytes

A

Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
(Have granular cytoplasm and lobed nuclei)

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58
Q

Agranulocytes

A

Lymphocytes
Monocytes
(Have clear cytoplasm and their nuclei are not lobed)

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59
Q

Neutrophils

A

Phagocytic granulocytes that engulf and digest bacteria and dead cells

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60
Q

Eosinophils

A

Release enzymes to fight inflammation in allergic reactions

Kill parasitic worms

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61
Q

Basophils

A

Involved in combating inflammatory and allergic reactions

Secrete heparin to prevent blood from clotting

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62
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Produce the immune response against foreign substances

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63
Q

Monocytes

A

Engulf and digest bactera and dead cells

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64
Q

Cellular components

A

Consist of erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets

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65
Q

Platelets

A

Fragments of large cells from the bone marrow

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66
Q

Erythrocytes

A

Shaped like a biconcave disc
(thinner in the centre than at the edges)
does not have a nucleus
Small

All these characteristics give an erythrocyte a large surface area to volume ratio for the rapid diffusion of oxygen across its plasma membrane

Has elastic membrane
(Enables it to squeeze easily into the tiniest blood capillaries)

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67
Q

Haemoglobin

A

An oxygen-carrying protein pigment that gives the erythrocyte its red colour

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68
Q

Haem group

A

Contains an iron atom and is the site of oxygen binding

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69
Q

Pulmonary artery

A

The only artery that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs

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70
Q

Pulmonary vein

A

The only vein that carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart

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71
Q

Arterioles

A

Small arteries that branch into a network of capillaries which reach into the tissues

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72
Q

Capillaries

A

Tiny, thin-walled blood vessels

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73
Q

Heart

A

Cone-shaped, muscular organ about the size of a clenched fist

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74
Q

Pumping of heart function

A
  1. Carries vital materials required by the body

2. Removes waste products that the body does not need

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75
Q

Atria

sing. Atrium

A

Recieve blood returning from the heart

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76
Q

Ventricles

A

Pump blood out of the heart

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77
Q

Valves

A

Allow blood to flow in one direction only

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78
Q

Cardiac muscle

A

Strong muscle

Myogenic

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79
Q

Myogenic

A

It contracts and relaxes without the need to receive stimulation by nerve impulses

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80
Q

Pacemaker

A

A cluster of specialised heart muscle cells that set the rate of contraction

Generates electrical impulses which spread rapidly over the walls of both atria, causing the atria to contract rythmically

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81
Q

Primary pacemaker

A

Sinoatrial (SA) node

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82
Q

Sinoatrial (SA) node

A

It keeps the heartbeat regular

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83
Q

AV node

A

Atrioventricular (AV) node

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84
Q

Atrioventricular (AV) node

A

Sends impulses to the ventricles to contract

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85
Q

bundle of His fibres
bundle branches
Purkinje fibres

A

Specialised muscle fibres that send impulses to the apex of the heart and throughout the walls of the ventricles

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86
Q

Systole stage

A

Contraction of ventricles

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87
Q

Systolic pressure

A

The highest recorded pressure in an artery when the ventricles contract

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88
Q

Diastole stage

A

The relaxation stage of heartbeats

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89
Q

Diastolic pressure

A

The lowest recorded pressure during the relaxation stage of heartbeats

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90
Q

Baroreceptors/ Pressure receptors

A

Located in the arch of the aorta and carotid arteries

Detect the pressure of the blood flowing through them

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91
Q

Carotid arteries

A

arteries in the neck that supply blood to the brain

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92
Q

Blood pressure

A

The pressure against the walls of the blood vessel when blood flows along a vessel

The force that pumps blood along the arteries and the capillaries

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93
Q

Open circulatory system

A
  1. One or more hearts
  2. A network of vessels
  3. A large open space within the body
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94
Q

Haemocoel

A

A large open space within the body

Contains the soft internal organs and its filled with haemolymph

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95
Q

Ostia

sing. ostium

A

The haemolymph is drawn through the pores called ostia back into the hearts when the hearts relax

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96
Q

Pumocutaneous circulation

A

delivers the deoxygenated blood to the organs involved in gaseous exchange, that is, the lungs and the skin

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97
Q

Systemic circulation

A

carries the oxygenated blood to the body tissues and returns the deoxygenated blood to the right atrium through the veins

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98
Q

Blood clotting

A

A body mechanism to stop or minimise blood loss from damaged blood vessels

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99
Q

Blood clotting function

A
  1. Prevent serious blood loss when a person is injured
  2. Maintain blood pressure
  3. Maintain the circulation of blood in a closed circulatory system
  4. Prevent the entry of microorganisms and foreign substances into the body through the damaged blood vessels
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100
Q

Blood clotting mechanism

A

Involves a complex series of biochemical reactions in the blood to prevent excessive bleeding after an injury

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101
Q

Platelet plug

A

The aggregration of platelets that forms a plug

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102
Q

Prothrombin

A

inactive plasma protein

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103
Q

Thrombin

A

active plasma protein which acts as an enzyme

It catalysts the conversion of the soluble protein fibrinogen in blood plasma into the insouble fibrin

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104
Q

Fibrin

A

forms a mesh of fibres across the wound, sealing the wound and preventing further loss of blood

A fibrous protein which combines to form a mesh of long threads over the wound, trapping erythrocytes and sealing the wound

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105
Q

Haemophilia

A

Example of an impaired blood clotting mechanism
Hereditary disease
The afflicted person lacks the gene necessary for the production of certain clotting factors

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106
Q

Thrombosis

A

Example of an impaired blood clotting mechanism

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107
Q

Thrombosis

A

Example of an impaired blood clotting mechanism

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108
Q

Thrombus

A

The clot formation inside an unbroken blood vessel

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109
Q

Embolus

A

A blood clot moving in a bloodstream

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110
Q

Heart attack

A

Myocardial infraction

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111
Q

Interstitial fluid

A

Fills the spaces between the cells and constantly bathes the cells

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112
Q

Exchange of substances btw blood capillaries and body cells

A
  1. Nutrients and oxygen diffuses from the blood through the interstitial fluid into the blood cells
  2. Carbon dioxide and other waste products diffuse from the body cells through the interstitial fluid into the blood
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113
Q

Composition of interstitial fluid

A
  1. Consists of water, dissolved nutrients, hormones, waste products, gases and small proteins from the blood
  2. Leucocytes ooze through the openings in the capillary walls
  3. It does not contain plasma proteins, erythrocytes and platelets because these are too large to pass through the capillary walls
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114
Q

Lymphatic system

A

A one-way system consisting of a network of lymph capillaries, larger lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes

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115
Q

Lymph capillaries

A

Blind-ended tubes located in the spaces between the cells

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116
Q

Blind-ended tubes

A

Closed at one end

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117
Q

Plasma proteins

A

Albumin, globulin, fibrinogen

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118
Q

Lymph nodes

A
  1. Produce and store lymphocytes

2. Help to protect the body against infections

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119
Q

Thoracic duct

A

receives lymph from the left side of the head, neck and chest, the left upper limb and the entire body below the ribs

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120
Q

Right lymphatic duct

A

Receives lymph from the right arm, shoulder area, and the right side of the head and neck

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121
Q

Oedema

A

An excessive accumulation of interstitial fluid in the spaces between the cells

Caused by a blocked lymphatic vessel

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122
Q

Lacteals

A

Lymph capillaries that transport droplets of lipids and fat-soluble vitamins to the bloodstream
(in the villi of small intestine)

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123
Q

Composition of blood

A

Plasma and cellular components

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124
Q

Composition of interstitial fluid

A

Plasma without plasma proteins, erythrocytes and platelets

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125
Q

Composition of lymph

A
  1. Plasma without plasma proteins, erythrocytes and platelets
  2. More fatty substances
  3. Large number of lymphocytes produced by the lymph nodes
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126
Q

The first line of defence

A

Consists of physical and chemical barriers that prevent pathogens from entering the body

Non-specific defences
(do not differentiate one pathogen from another)

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127
Q

Pathogens

A

disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and parasites

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128
Q

Examples of first line of defence

A 
skin
mucous membrane
tears and saliva
hydrochloric acid
blood clotting
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129
Q

Skin

A
  1. Provides a physical barrier that is impenetrable to bacteria and viruses
  2. A chemical barrier as it secretes sebum that forms a protective film over the skin
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130
Q

Sebum

A

The acids and oils in the sebum prevent the growth of microorganisms

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131
Q

Sweat

A

contains lysozyme, an enzyme capable of breaking down the cell walls of certain bacteria

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132
Q

Mucous membrane

A

(line the trachea, respiratory passageways, digestive and urinary tracts)
Stop the entry of potentially harmful microorganisms
Secretes mucus

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133
Q

Mucus

A

contains lysozyme which traps and destroys bacteria

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134
Q

Tears and saliva

A

contain lysozyme which helps to protect the eyes and mouth from bacterial invasion

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135
Q

Hydrochloric acid

A

destroy most pathogens that gain entry into the body via the food and drinks consumed

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136
Q

Blood clotting mechanism in first line defence

A

prevents the entry of pathogens by sealing the wounds

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137
Q

The second line of defence

A

Face the pathogens that penetrate the first line of defence, such as those that enter through a break in the skin

Non-specific

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138
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Performed by phagocytic white blood cells or phagocytes

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139
Q

Macrophages

A

Found mainly in the interstitial fluid

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140
Q

The third line of defence

A

Face pathogens that manage to overcome the second line of defence
Involves immune system
specific or targeted defence

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141
Q

Immunity

A

The body resistance to the pathogen which causes a specific disease

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142
Q

Antigens

A

Substances usually proteins, that the immune system recognises as foreign or not part of the body

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143
Q

Antibodies

A

Proteins found on the surface of lymphocytes or proteins released by lymphocytes into the blood plasma

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144
Q

Lymphatic system

A

Return excess interstitial fluid to the circulatory system

Help defend the body against invasion by pathogens

145
Q

Lymph nodes

A

Contain macrophages that destroy bacteria, dead tissues and other foreign substances through phagocytosis
Contain lymphocytes that destroy antigens and foreign organisms

146
Q

How antibodies work

A
  1. Agglutination
  2. Neutralisation
  3. Opsonisation
  4. Lysis
147
Q

Agglutination

A

Antibodies cause the pathogens to clump together

This clumping makes it easy for the phagocytes to capture and destroy the pathogens

148
Q

Neutralisation

A

An antibody neutralises the toxins produced by the bacteria by binding to a toxin molecule
This prevents the toxin molecule from attaching to a cell and causing damage

149
Q

Opsonisation

A

Antibodies that bind to antigens and act as markers so that antigens can be easily recognised and destroyed by phagocytes

150
Q

Lysis

A

Lysins : Antibodies that bind to the anitgens and cause the antigens to rupture or disintegrate

151
Q

Active immunity

A

The body produces its own antibodies in response to stimulation by an antigen

Naturally acquired active immunity
Artificially acquired active immunity

152
Q

Passive immunity

A

The body receives antibodies from an outside source

Naturally acquired passive immunity
Artificially acquired passive immunity

153
Q

Naturally acquired active immunity

A

Immunity that is obtained after a person recovers from an infection

154
Q

Artificially acquired active immunity

A

Immunity that is obtained through immunisation or vaccination

155
Q

Naturally acquired passive immunity

A

Immunity that is obtained from the mother either through breast milk or via placenta

156
Q

Artificially acquired passive immunity

A

Immunity that is obtained through the injection of a serum which contains specific antibodies

157
Q

Vaccine

A

A preparation of a weakened, dead or non-virulent forms of a pathogen that is not harmful to the person who receives it

Stimulates the body to produce antibodies capable of binding to the antigen

158
Q

Immunisation

A

The process of inducing immunity by administering a vaccine

159
Q

Examples of diseases with vaccines available

A 
Hepatitis B
diphtheria
pertussis
tetanus
poliomyelitis
160
Q

Examples of vaccines

A

Salk poliomyelitis vaccine

Sabin vaccine

161
Q

Booster dose

A

Increase the antibody production to a level that protects the person against the disease

162
Q

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

A

A virus that attacks the human immune system

163
Q

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

A

Infection caused by the HIV

164
Q

HIV virus danger

A
  1. Reproduces inside T-lymphocytes and destroys them in the process
  2. inhibits phagocytosis carried out by macrophages
165
Q

Diseases linked to the cardiovascular system

A 
Coronary thrombosis
Atherosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis
Hypertension
Angina (Chest pain)
Heart attack
Stroke
166
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

The early stage of arteriosclerosis

167
Q

Arteriosclerosis

A

Formation and deposition of plaques on the inner walls of arteries

The hard plaques clog the lumen of blood vessels and narrow the lumen and also
cause the hardening of arteries and decreased elasticity of the arteries

168
Q

Xylem

A

transports water and dissoved mineral salts absorbed by the roots up the stems and to the leaves

In woody plants, provides mechanical support to the plant

169
Q

Phloem

A

Transport organic substances from the leaves down to the storage organs and from the storage organs

such as the roots up to the growing regions such as the buds

170
Q

Stem

A

Has an epidermal layer that helps maintain the shape of the stem

171
Q

Cortex layer

A

Made up of

collenchyma cells which provide support and flexibility to the stem

and parenchyma cells which store food

172
Q

Pith

A
  1. Used for food storage in young plants

2. absent in hollow plants, making them hollow

173
Q

Vascular bundles

A

Arranged in a ring around the pith

In each vascular bundle, xylem is found towards the inside of the stem with the phloem on the outside

174
Q

Cambium

A

lies between the xylem and the phloem

175
Q

Root hairs

A

Increase the surface area for water absorption

176
Q

Epidermis in roots

A

Does not have any waxy cuticles

absorbs water and dissolved mineral ions from the soil

177
Q

Cortex

A

The region between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder

178
Q

Endodermis

A

a single layer of cells located immediately after the cortex

179
Q

Pericycle

A

Located next to the endodermis

Consists of sclerenchyma tissue which provides mechanical support for the roots

180
Q

Vascular cylinder

A

consists of vascular tissue and the pericycle

181
Q

Cells in xylem

A

xylem vessel
tracheids
fibres
parenchyma

182
Q

parenchyma

A

stores food substances

183
Q

fibres

A

provide support to the xylem

184
Q

xylem vessels and tracheids

A

water-conducting cells

185
Q

Lignin

A

make walls of xylem vessels and tracheids strong and hardy so that they do not collapse under the tension of transpiration pull

Prevents the entry of food substances

186
Q

Pits

A

Small openings of xylem vessels and tracheids

Allow water and mineral salts to pass sideways between the cells

187
Q

Cells inside Phloem tissue

A

sieve tubes
companion cells
parenchyma
fibres

188
Q

Bark ringing

A

removal of a ring of the bark

189
Q

sieve tubes

A

A cylindrical column comprising long cells arranged end to end
Living cell

190
Q

sieve plates

A

To allow substances to pass from one cell to another

191
Q

Companion cell

A

A normal cell with a nucleus and a large number of mitochondria, indicating that it has active metabolism

192
Q

Phloem sap

A

A very concentrated solution of dissolved organic solutes such as sugars, amino acids and other metabolites in phloem

193
Q

Translocation

A

The transport of dissolved organic solutes in the phloem

194
Q

Importance of translocation

A
  1. Survival of a plant depend on the transport of organic substances from the leaves to the storage organs (roots) to the growth regions (buds)
  2. Enables sucrose, the product of photosynthesis, to be stored or converted into other sugars when it reaches its destination
195
Q

Transpiration

A

The loss of water vapour through evaporation from the surface of plants

196
Q

Transpiration stream

A

The continuous stream of flowing water from the roots to leaves

197
Q

Assistance for movement of water from roots to leaves

A

Root pressure
capillary action
transpiration pull

198
Q

Casparian strips

A

line the sides of the endodermal cells
impermeable to water
(movement through the cell walls is blocked)

199
Q

Gradient of water concentration

exists across the cortex

A

Creates a pushing force that results in the inflow of water into the xylem

200
Q

Root pressure

A

results in an upward push of water and mineral ions into the xylem of the stem

201
Q

Capillarity / capillary action

A

the result of the cohesive and adhesive forces which enable water to enter and move along the very narrow columns

202
Q

Cohesive forces

A

The water molecules adhere to one another

203
Q

Adhesive forces

A

The water molecules adhere to the walls of the xylem vessels

204
Q

Sensitivity

A

Ability to detect changes and respond to them accordingly

205
Q

Stimuli

A

The changes which cause response

206
Q

Coordination

A

Ensures that the activities of an organism function efficiently

207
Q

Components of nervous system

A

sensory receptors
integrating centre
effectors

208
Q

Afferent pathway

A

allow the transmission of nerve impulses from the sensory receptors through the afferent neurones to the integrating centre

209
Q

Efferent pathway

A

Transmits nerve impulses from the integrating centre through the efferent nerves to the effectors

210
Q

Central nervous system (CNS)

A

brain

spinal cord

211
Q

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

all the nerve tissues outside the CNS

consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves

212
Q

Sensory receptors

A

detect stimuli from both internal and external environments and initiate nerve impulses that carry information to the CNS

213
Q

Human brain consist of

A 
cerebrum
cerebellum
medulla oblongata
pituitary gland
thalamus
hypothalamus
214
Q

Hypothalamus

A
  1. Homeostatic regulation

2. Controls the release of several hormones from pituitary gland

215
Q

Cerebrum

A

Centre which receives sensory input and carries out integrative functions before initiating appropriate motor response

216
Q

Cerebral cortex

outer region of cerebrum

A

a structure with many folds which increases surface area

Controls all voluntary muscle movements and for many mental abilities

217
Q

Thalamus

A
  1. sorts the incoming and outgoing information in the cerebral cortex
  2. integrates the information from sensory receptors
218
Q

Cerebellum

A

Coordinate body movements

219
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Secrete hormones that control the secretion of hormones from all other glands

220
Q

Medulla oblongata

A

Controls involuntary actions and regulates the internal body processes
Reflex centre

221
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid

A

Acts as a shock absorber and provides spinal cord with nutrients

222
Q

Grey matter

A

Consist mainly of cell bodies of neurones

223
Q

White matter

A

Comprises myelin-coated axons of neurones

224
Q

Spinal cord function

A
  1. Process sensory information and send out responses via efferent neurones
  2. Contains neurones that convey signals from and to the brain
  3. Controls reflex action
225
Q

Dorsal root

A

Contains the axons of the afferent neurones which conduct nerve impulses from the sensory receptors to the spinal cord

226
Q

Spinal nerve

A

Contains afferent and efferent neurones

227
Q

Ventral root

A

Contains axons of efferent neurones which conduct nerve impulses away from the spinal cord to the effectors

228
Q

Neurones

A

Afferent neurones
Efferent neurones
Interneurones

229
Q

Afferent neurones

Sensory

A

Send nerve impulses from receptor cells to the brain and spinal cord

230
Q

Efferent neurones

Motor

A

Send nerve impulses from brain or spinal cord to the effectors (muscles or endocrine glands)

231
Q

Interneurones

A

Transmit nerve impulses btw afferent and efferent neurones

232
Q

Dendrites

A

fibres that receive information or signals from other neurones or from the external environment and conduct them towards the cell body

233
Q

Axon

A

conducts the nerve impulses away from the cell body

234
Q

Synaptic terminals

A

Swellings at the branched ends of the axons

Transmits signals to muscle cells, gland cells or dendrites of other neurone

235
Q

Cell body

A

Integrates signals and coordinate metabolic activites

236
Q

Myelin sheath

A

protects and insulates the axons

helps to speed up the transmission of the nerve impulses

237
Q

synaptic cleft

A

separates the synaptic terminal from the dendrite of a receiving neurone

238
Q

synapse

A

a site where two neurones, or a neurone and an effector cell communicate

  1. control and integrate nerve impulses transmitted by stimulated receptors
  2. Facilitate the transmission of nerve impulses in one direction
239
Q

neurotransmitters

A 
stored in small synaptic vesicles
acetylcholine
noradrenaline
serotonin
dopamine
240
Q

Mitochondria

A

generate energy for the transmission of nerve impulses across the synapse

241
Q

Reflex actions

A

rapid, automatic or involuntary responses to stimuli

242
Q

Reflex arc

A

The pathway by which nerve impulses travel from the receptor to the effector in a reflex action

243
Q

Knee-jerk reflex/

patellar reflex

A

uses afferent and efferent neurones only

244
Q

division of autonomic nervous system

A

sympathetic division

parasympathetic division

245
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

Progressive disorder of the CNS that affects victims around the age of 60 years onwards
due to reduced levels of dopamine

246
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

A neurological disorder which affects victims around 60 yr old, causes loss of reasoning and the ability to care for oneself

247
Q

Hormones

A

chemical messengers produced by the endocrine gland

248
Q

Endocrine glands

A

Ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the interstitial fluid and subsequently into the bloodstream

249
Q

Hormones by Anterior piuitary gland

A

TSH
FSH
LH
GH

250
Q

Hormones by Posterior pituitary gland

A

ADH

Oxytoxin

251
Q

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

@thyroid gland

A

Stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxine

252
Q

Follice-stimulating hormone (FSH)

@Gonad

A

Stimulates the development of the follicles in the ovaries in females
Stimulates spermatogenesis in males

253
Q 
Luteinising hormone (LH)
@gonad
A

Stimulates ovulation
development of corpus luteum
secretion of oestrogen and progesterone
stimulate testosterone

254
Q 
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
@kidney
A

Stimulates water reabsorption by the renal tubules in the kidneys

255
Q

Throxine

A

by thyroid gland

Regulates growth and development

256
Q

Aldosterone

A

By Adrenal cortex

Increases the reabsorption of mineral salts in the kidneys

257
Q

Adrenal medulla

A

secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline

258
Q

Pancreas

A

secrete insulin and glucagon

259
Q

Ovaries

A

secrete oestrogen and progesterone

260
Q

testes

A

secrete androgen

261
Q

hypoglycaemia

A

over secretion of insulin

abnormally low level of glucose in blood

262
Q

diabetes mellitus

A

under secretion of insulin

chronic condition associated with abnormally high levels of glucose in blood

263
Q

goitre

A

over secretion of thryoxine
iodine deficiency
(thyroid gland cannot secrete enough thryoxine)

264
Q

Cretinism

A

under secretion of thyroxine in child

265
Q

Myxedema

A

under secretion of thyroxine in adult

266
Q

Gigantism

A

over secretion of GH in child

267
Q

Acromegaly

A

over secretion of GH in adult

268
Q

Dwarfism

A

under secretion of GH

269
Q

Oversecretion of ADH

A

High retention of water in the body

尿很浓

270
Q

Diabetes insipidus

A

under secretion of ADH

271
Q

Kidney

A
  1. Helps to regulate water and salt balance
  2. Regulate osmotic pressure
  3. Excrete waste products
  4. Regulate blood pH
272
Q

Renal artery

A

supplies oxygenated blood and nutrients to the kidney

273
Q

Renal vein

A

carries filtered blood away from the kidney

274
Q

Bowman’s capsule

A

made up of two layers of cells that surround glomerulus

275
Q

capsular space

A

the space between the two layers of cells

276
Q

podocytes

A

the cells that make up the inner wall of the Bowman’s capsule

277
Q

nephron consist of

A

glomerulus
Bowman’s capsule
renal tubule

278
Q

renal tubule made up of

A

proximal convoluted tubule
loop of Henle
distal convoluted tubule

279
Q

ultrafiltration

A

the high hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus forces fluid through the filtration membrane into the capsular space

280
Q

glomerular filtrate

A

the fluid that enters into the capsular space

281
Q

haemodialysis

A

process of filtering blood by using an artificial means that replaces the functions of a failed kidney

282
Q

artificial kidney

A

machine which contains a dialyser

283
Q

pancreas

A

the gland that is responsible for maintaining the blood sugar level within normal range

284
Q

stimulant

A

increase the activity of the CNS

285
Q

depressants

A

often slow down the activity of CNS

286
Q

hallucinogens

A

causes a user to see, hear and perceive things that do not exist

287
Q

narcotics

A

induce feelings of ecstacy, block pain signals and slow down normal brain functions

288
Q

positive phototropism

A

growth of shoots towards sunlight

289
Q

negative phototropism

A

growth of shoots away from sunlight

290
Q

coleoptile

A

shoot of glass seedling enclosed in a sheath

291
Q

auxins

A

produced in the apical meristems at the tips of the shoots
increase the rate of cell division
promote cell elongation

phototropism:
the growth of a plant towards light is caused by unequal distribution of auxins in the shoot

geotropism:
auxins control the responses of both roots and shoots to light and gravity

292
Q

Parthenocarpy

A

used to produce seeless fruits

293
Q

ethylene/ethane/ethene

A

plant hormone which is synthesised during the ripening of fruits

stimulate the production of cellulase

promotes the breakdown of complex carbohydrates into simple sugar

294
Q

Reproduction necessary

A

to ensure:

  1. the continuation of the species
  2. the passing down of an individual’s genes to future generations
295
Q

sexual reproduction

A

the production of offspring through the fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote

296
Q

asexual reproduction

A

the reproductive process in which new individuals are produced without the formation of gametes

297
Q

zygote

A

fertilised egg

298
Q

Formation of gametes

A

ensures:

  1. the diploid chromosomal number is maintained from one generation to the next
  2. genetic variations in the offspring to give them better survival chances in an ever changing environment
  3. the continuity of a species
299
Q

testes

/male gonad

A

produce both the male gametes (sperms) and male sex hormones

300
Q

scrotum

A

holds the testes and is located outside the main body

301
Q

seminiferous tubules

A

joined together to form a tightly coiled tube called the epididymis

302
Q

vas deferens/ sperm duct

A

stores the sperms

303
Q

acrosome

A

contains hydrolytic enzymes that help to digest the protective layers surrounding an ovum, enabling the sperm to penetrate and fertilize it

304
Q

mitochondria

A

provide the energy needed for the movement of tail

305
Q

spermatogenesis

A

spermatozoa formation

take place in the density coiled seminiferous tubules

306
Q

ovaries / femala gonads

A

produce female gametes (ova) and secrete female sex hormones
hormones:
oestrogen, progesterone

307
Q

fallopian tubes

A

have finger-like projections called frimbriae which surround the ovaries

combined action of the frimbriae and the beating of cilia that line the oviducts help to move the ovum along

308
Q

uterus

A

a thick-walled, muscular organ that holds the developing embryo and foetus

309
Q

Oogenesis

A

the formation of oocytes

310
Q

Ovulation

A

the release of the secondary oocyte from the ovary

311
Q

Menstrual cycle

A

the cyclic changes that occur in the endometrium of the uterus to prepare it for a fertilised ovum and its subsequent development

312
Q

FSH

LH

A

The hormones that control the changes in the ovaries

313
Q

Oestrogen

Progesterone

A

Controlthe changes in the uterus

314
Q

FSH place of secretion

A

the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

315
Q

LH place of secretion

A

the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

316
Q

Oestrogen place of secretion

A

Follicle cells of the ovary

317
Q

Progesterone place of secretion

A

Corpus luteum

318
Q

FSH function

A

Stimulates the development of follicles in the ovary

319
Q

LH function

A

stimulates ovulation
stimulates the development of corpus luteum
promotes the secretion of progesterone

320
Q

Oestrogen function

A

Stimulates further the growth of the follicle

Promotes the repair of the endometrium

From about the 2th day of the menstrual cycle, it has a positive feedback action on the secretion of the FSH and LH

321
Q

Progesterone function

A

Stimulates the endometrium to become thick, folded and highly vascular for the implantation of an embryo

Inhibits the secretion of FSH and LH to prevent the development of the Graafian follicles and ovulation

322
Q

highly vascular

A

enriched with blood vessel

323
Q

Menstruation

A

The breakdown of the lining of the uterine wall and the discharge of blood, epithelial tissues and mucus through the vagina

324
Q

premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

A

cyclical disorder of severe physical, mental and emotional distress

325
Q

Menopause

A

occurs between the ages of 45 and 55 years when ovaries are less stimulated by FSH and LH

This inhibits the development of the follicles and ovulation, leading to a lower secretion of progesterone and oestrogen

326
Q

decrease in bone density

A

a low level of oestrogen

327
Q

zygote

A

the product of fertilisation

328
Q

fertilisation membrane

A

Barrier formed on the surface of the oocyte once a sperm has successfully penetrated the plasma membrane of the secondary oocyte

329
Q

pregnancy

A

the period when an ovum is fertilised, menstrual cycle stops and a nine-month gestation period starts

330
Q

implantation

A

the blastocyst attaches itself to the endometrium seven days after fertilisation

331
Q

foetus

A

fertilised egg from the third month of development until birth

332
Q

embryo

A

fertilised egg during the first eight weeks of its development

333
Q

amniotic fluid

A

protects the foetus by absorbing shocks and cushioning it from any physical damage

334
Q

blastocyst

A

A fluid-filled sphere consisting of an outer layer of cells and a group of cells inside the sphere

335
Q

Trophoblast

A

outer layer of cells

336
Q

Inner cell mass

A

clusterof cells within the sphere

337
Q

Identical twins

A

Formed when the ball of cells from a fertilised ovum splits into two embryos

only one sperm and one ovum are involved in the process of fertilisation

338
Q

Fraternal twins

A

Formed when two ova are released at the same time, one from each ovary.
Each ovum is then fertilised by a sperm

339
Q

Siamese twins

A

Identical twins which did not separate completely during embryonic development

340
Q

Placenta

A
  1. The site of exchange of nutrients, respiratory gases and wastes between the foetus and its mother
  2. Acts as an endocrine gland that secretes oestrogen and progesterone
341
Q

Umbilical cord

A

Connect foetus and placenta

A tube with one umbilical vein and two umbilical arteries

342
Q

Umbilical arteries

A

Carry blood rich in carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste products from the foetus to the placenta

343
Q

Umbilical vein

A

Carries blood rich in oxygen and nutrients from the placenta to the foetus

344
Q

Thin membrane of the chorionic villi

A

Separates the blood capillaries of the foetus (foetal capillaries) from the maternal blood

345
Q

Rhythm method

A

A married couple avoid engaging in copulation during the woman’s fertile period

346
Q

Contraception

A

Practice of preventing pregnancy

347
Q

Condom

A

A thin rubber sheath that is fitted over the erect penis before copulation

348
Q

Withdrawal method

A

The penis is withdrawn from the vagina before the release of semen or ejaculation

349
Q

Vasectomy

A

sperm ducts are tied and cut in a surgical operation

350
Q

diaphragm

A

a dome-shaped rubber cap with a springy outer ring to ensure a close fit

351
Q

female condom /femidom

A

a thin sheath which lines the vagina

352
Q

IUD

A

Intrauterine device
A plastic-coated copper coil that is fitted into the uterus by a doctor and can be left in the uterus for approximately two years

353
Q

Spermicide

A

Chemical cream, gel or foam that is applied to the vaginal walls before copulation
used tgt with a diaphragm

354
Q

contraceptive pills

A

pills with a combination of ostrogen and progesterone

synthetic progesterone

355
Q

Contraceptive implant

A

A capsule inserted just below the skin of the upper arm

356
Q

Tubal ligation

A

Both the Fallopian tubes are cut and tied in an operation

357
Q

Depo-Provera injection

A

An injection of synthetic progesterone given every three months

358
Q

Common causes of infertility

A 
blocked Fallopian tubes
failure of an embryo to implant itself on the endometrium
the inability to produce ova
blocked sperm ducts
low sperm count
359
Q

STD

A

Sexually transmitted diseases

diseases that are spread through sexual contact

Biology (9 decks)

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