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All biology Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Nucleus function

A

Controls cell activity
Makes proteins
Contains chromosomes- DNA which carries the genes

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2
Q

Cell membrane function

A

Boundary between cytoplasm and surroundings
Controls what goes in and out the cell
Selectively permeable

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3
Q

Cytoplasm function

A

Jelly-like liquid where chemical reactions occurr

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4
Q

Mitochondria function

A

Aerobic respiration

Produces atp

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5
Q

Ribosomes function

A

Make proteins from amino acids

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6
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Absorb light energy use it to carry out photosynthesis and make biological molecules for plant cells

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7
Q

Cell wall

A

Made of cellulose

Keeps plant in fixed shape

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8
Q

Vacuole

A

Filled with sap

Stores dissolved sugars minerals ions and other substances

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9
Q

Calculating magnification

A

Objective magnification = size of image / size of object

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10
Q

three parts of the plant cell that would not be found in an animal cell

A

vacuole and chloroplasts and cell wall

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11
Q

How is the plant cell different from the bacterial cell?

A

chloroplasts in a plant cell

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12
Q

what are pathogens?

A

microorganisms that can cause disease

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13
Q

What is nutrition?

A

Makes glucose, which can be used to make other biological molecules, by photosynthesis or eat and digest other organisms to absorb biological molecules

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14
Q

What is Respiration?

A

Chemical reaction, transferring energy from glucose to form ATP

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15
Q

What is growth?

A

Increase in size and mass due to increase in cell number

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16
Q

What is reproduction?

A

Production of new organisms (offspring)

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17
Q

What is homeostatis?

A

Control of internal conditions, such as water potential and temperature

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18
Q

What is movement?

A

Change of position or shape of organs (e.g. leaf moving towards light) or organism

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19
Q

What is excretion?

A

Removal of waste products from chemical reactions (e.g. carbon dioxide)

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20
Q

What is sensitivity?

A

Detect and respond to changes in the organism’s surroundings

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21
Q

ingestion process

A

food entering the mouth

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22
Q

digestion process

A

break down large molecules to small molecules

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23
Q

absorption process

A

Small food molecules move from the small intestine into the blood

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24
Q

assimilation synthesis process

A

Small food molecules are used to build large molecules

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25
Q

egestion

A

removal of undigested food from the anus (faeces)

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26
Q

describe the process of digestion in the mouth

A

Mechanical digestion breaks down the food in the mouth into smaller pieces. Then amylase in your saliva breaks starch down into shorter chains of glucose molecules

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27
Q

In what way is the structure of the artery different from the vein

A

artery has no valves, narrower lumen, thicker wall, more muscle, more elastic

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28
Q

artery function

A

takes oxygenated blood from the heart to the body

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29
Q

vein function

A

takes deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart

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30
Q

Blood vessels in the Pulmonary circulation

A

pulmonary vein and artery

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31
Q

Blood vessels in the Systemic circulation

A

vena cava, hepatic portal vein, renal artery and vein, aorta, hepatic artery and vein-mesenteric artery

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32
Q

Why do larger organisms have to have a circulatory system?

A

To deliver food and oxygen to cells and remove carbon dioxide and waste, effective diffusion

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33
Q

Arteries three specialisations for their functions

A
  1. Large in diameter, muscular with thick walls- important to contract and keep blood flowing at high pressure
  2. elastic walls important because they stretch and recoil to keep blood moving under high pressure without bursting
  3. Smooth lining (endothelium) important for stopping blood clots forming
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34
Q

Veins four specialisations for their functions

A
  1. large in diameter, important for plenty of space for blood to move, reducing loss of pressure
  2. Thin muscle layer in wall important to contract to maintain pressure and keep blood moving
  3. Smooth lining (endothelium) important to stop blood clots
  4. Pocket valves important to ensure blood only flows in one direction, can push blood up the body
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35
Q

Capillaries two specialisations for their functions

A
  1. Narrow important to slow down blood flow, so that exchange of substances with cells can happen
  2. wall is one cell thick important for fast diffusion distance
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36
Q

Describe the cardiac cycle (8 points)

A
  1. Blood flows from veins into atria
  2. Atria contract
  3. Blood flows into ventricles
  4. Ventricles contract
  5. Tricuspid and bicuspid valves close
  6. Blood flows into arteries & away from the heart
  7. Ventricles relax
  8. Semi-lunar valves close
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37
Q

Why is the left ventricle thicker than the right ventricle?

A

the left has higher pressure to withstand as it has to pump blood around the body

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38
Q

Plasma description and function

A

straw like liquid, mainly water- transports blood cells

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39
Q

Phagocytes description and function

A

a type of white blood cell that ingests and destroys pathogens such as bacteria

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40
Q

Lymphocytes description and function

A

cells with a very large nucleus that make antibodies

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41
Q

Platelets description and function

A

Platelets description and function

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42
Q

Red blood cells description and function

A

small red cells that transport oxygen

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43
Q

What proteins do red blood cells contain?

A

haemoglobin

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44
Q

How is oxygen carried by red blood cells?

A

oxyhaemoglobin

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45
Q

Red blood cells have no nucleus, but how does this help them?

A

More space for haemoglobin and oxygen to be transported

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46
Q

Red blood cells have a biconcave shape, how does this adaptation help them?

A

Faster rate of diffusion due to the surface area to volume ratio

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47
Q

Order the levels of organisation in organisms from largest to smallest

A 
organ system- largest
organ
tissue
cell
organelle
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48
Q

What is diffusion?

A

The random movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration

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49
Q

What is Osmosis?

A

The net diffusion of free water molecules from an area of high water concentration to an area of low concentration across a partially permeable membrane

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50
Q

What is active transport

A

The movement of molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration using ATP

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51
Q

What 4 main factors affect the rate of diffusion and osmosis?

A
  1. TEMPERATURE- at higher temperatures molecules have more kinetic energy so they move faster and diffusion is faster
  2. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT- if there is a large difference in concentration between areas, then diffusion is fast
  3. DISTANCE- diffusion takes longer when the molecules have further to travel
  4. SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO- a larger surface area speeds up diffusion as there are more opportunities for the molecules to move
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52
Q

What is a stimuli?

A

Change in the animal’s surroundings (eg ball being thrown at you)

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53
Q

What is a receptor?

A

The organ which detects the change (eg your eye)

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54
Q

What is an effector in the example of a ball being thrown at you?

A

The muscles as they contract to catch the ball

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55
Q

What is the energy conversion of the eye as a receptor

A

Light –> electrical impulses

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56
Q

What is in the central nervous system?

A

Brain and spinal chords

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57
Q

What is in the peripheral nervous system?

A

Cranial nerves and spinal nerves

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58
Q

2 advantages of reflex actions

A
  1. The behaviour does not need to be learned so the damage can be avoided at an early age
  2. The response is fast and automatic meaning the damage done is reduced
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59
Q

What is the function of rods?

A

Sensitive to low light, detects shades of grey
Provides us with night vision when you can see shapes not colours
Found in the retina but not in the centre of the fovea or blind spot

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60
Q

What is the function of cones?

A

Sensitive only to high light intensity (doesn’t operate in poor light)
Detects colour
There are three types, sensitive to red, green and blue light
Concentrated in the fovea

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61
Q

What is the cornea?

A

A curved transparent disc at the front of the eye. Does most of the focussing.

62
Q

What is the pupil?

A

A circular opening whose size is controlled by the Iris.

63
Q

What is the lens?

A

It is soft, flexible and transparent. Its shape can be changed to fine tune the focussing of light onto the retina

64
Q

What are the ciliary muscles?

A

A ring of muscle at the edge of the eye which circles the lens. When it relaxes, the lens gets thinner. When it contracts, the lens gets fatter.

65
Q

What is the suspensory ligament

A

Strong fibres which attach the lens to the ciliary muscle

66
Q

What is the retina?

A

Contains light sensitive cells called rods and cones

67
Q

What is the optic nerve?

A

Consists of many neurones which carry impulses from the retina to the brain

68
Q

What is the fovea?

A

The region of the retina with the greatest number of cones

69
Q

What is the conjunctiva?

A

A mucous membrane that covers the eye to prevent infection

70
Q

Photosynthesis word and symbol equation

A

Carbon dioxide + water –> oxygen + glucose

6CO2 + 6H2O –> 6O2 + C6H12O6

71
Q

Describe the test for reducing sugars (glucose)

A
  1. Add benedict’s solution to a sample of food (in solution)
  2. Place in a water bath at 80’C for 5 minutes
  3. If glucose is present, the colour will change from blue to brick red. (If it turns green, yellow or or orange it is still a positive result but has a lower concentration of the sugar)
72
Q

Describe the test for starch

A
  1. Add a few drops of orange iodine solution to the sample on a spotting tile
  2. A blue-black colour indicates the presence of starch
73
Q

Describe the test for protein

A

(Biuret)

  1. Add 2cm cubed water to a food sample and shake (if not already liquid)
  2. Add an equal volume of dilute potassium hydroxide and shake
  3. Add two drops of 1% copper sulfate solution
  4. If protein is present then a pale purple will develop
74
Q

Describe the test for lipids

A

(Emulsion)

  1. The food sample is placed in a test tube
  2. Add a small volume of absolute ethanol and shake to dissolve any lipid in the alcohol
  3. Add an equal volume of water
  4. A cloudy white colour (caused by an emulsion forming) indicates the presence of lipids
75
Q

How does gas exchange occur in the alveoli?

A

Oxygen diffuses from the air into the red blood cells, where it binds with the haemoglobin for transport. Carbon dioxide, dissolved in the plasma diffuses into the blood into the alveolus

76
Q

How are the alveoli adapted for efficient gas exchange?

A

Large surface area, high concentration gradient and short diffusion distance speed up diffusion

77
Q

Describe the effect of exercise on heart rate

A

When we exercise, our body needs more glucose and oxygen for aerobic respiration so the heart rate increases so that more blood can travel to the muscles

Changes in heart rate are controlled by nerve impulses from a part of the brain called the medulla

  • When exercise starts, the muscles produce more carbon dioxide in aerobic respiration
  • Sensors in the aorta and carotid artery detect this increase
  • They send nerve impulses to the medulla
  • The medulla responds by sending nerve impulses along the accelerator nerve
  • The accelerator nerve increases the heart rate
  • More blood is supplied to the muscles to meet the demands of increased aerobic respiration
78
Q

Insulin gland and function

A

Pancreas

Causes liver and muscles to take up glucose and convert it to glycogen for storage

79
Q

ADH gland and function

A

Pituitary gland

Reduces the amount of water loss in urine

80
Q

Oestrogen gland and function

A

Ovaries

Stimulates uterus lining to develop and the development of secondary female characteristics

81
Q

Progesterone gland and function

A

Ovaries

Maintains uterus lining and controls the development of secondary female characteristics

82
Q

Testosterone gland and function

A

Testes

Stimulates development of male secondary sexual characteristics

83
Q

Adrenaline gland and function

A

Adrenal gland

Increases heart and breathing rate for fight, fright or flight

84
Q

FSH gland and function

A

Pituitary gland

Stimulates the egg to mature in the ovary

85
Q

LH gland and function

A

Stimulates the release of an egg from the ovary (ovulation)

86
Q

5 points about the phloem

A
  1. Consists of living cells
  2. Tubes are formed by cells arranged end to end but have cell walls made up of cellulose
  3. The sugar made in photosynthesis is converted to sucrose
  4. Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids from the leaves where they are made to the growing points
  5. Moving sucrose and amino acids around the plant require energy. This is called translocation
87
Q

6 points about the xylem

A
  • Made up of thick walled dead cells which contain no cytoplasm, they are completely hollow and arranged end to end
  • The cell wall contains waterproof lignin
  • The end walls have broken down so they form a continuous transport system through the plant
  • transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves
  • Nitrate ions are needed to make amino acids and proteins
  • Magnesium ions are needed to make chlorophyll
88
Q

5 substances dissolved into the plasma

A 
Digested food
Carbon dioxide
Hormones
Antibodies
Amino acids
89
Q

What are the 4 components of blood

A

Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
Plasma

90
Q

What happens to your eyes in dim light

A

Radial muscles contract
Circular muscles relax
Iris is narrower and pupil dilates

91
Q

What happens to your eyes in bright light

A

Radial muscles relax
Circular muscles contract
Iris is wider and pupil constricts

92
Q

Describe the accommodation of your eye to focus on an object far away

A

Light rays entering the eye are almost parallel when they reach the cornea, so the lens does not need to refract them much to focus light onto the retina, the eye does this by:

  • Relaxing ciliary muscles
  • Meaning suspension ligaments are therefore pulled tight
  • Lens is pulled thin and has a less convex shape
  • Therefore there is less refraction of light
93
Q

Describe the accommodation of your eye to focus on an object close up

A

Light rays entering eye are spreading out (diverging) so the lens needs to refract the light to ensure that it focusses on the retina. The light does this by:

  • contracting the ciliary muscles
  • Meaning suspensory ligaments are therefore slack
  • Lens is not stretched out so becomes thicker with a more convex shape
  • Therefore there is more refraction of light
94
Q

Function of the head of the sperm cell

A

gain entry, break through egg membrane, chromosomes, DNA

95
Q

Function of the middle part of the sperm cell

A

respiration for ATP and energy

96
Q

Function of the tail of the sperm cell

A

swim and move around

97
Q

How is the structure of the motor neurone cell adapted for its function

A

dendrites connect with other neurones, myeline sheet for insulation/ protection, connected to muscle fibres which allow muscle fibres to contract

98
Q

Number of mitosis cells before cell division

A

23 pairs so 46 chromosomes

99
Q

Number of meiosis chromosomes before cell division

A

23 pairs so 46 chromosomes

100
Q

Number of mitosis chromosomes after cell division

A

23 pairs so 46 chromosomes

101
Q

Number of Meiosis chromosomes after cell division

A

23 single chromosones

102
Q

Number of cell divisions in Mitosis

A

1

103
Q

Number of cell divisions in Meiosis

A

2

104
Q

Number of daughter cells produced in Mitosis

A

2

105
Q

Number of daughter cells produced in meiosis

A

4

106
Q

Is a genetic variation produced in Mitosis?

A

no

107
Q

Is genetic variation produced in Meiosis?

A

yes

108
Q

How is Mitosis used?

A

To heal, grow, and reproduce (asexually)

109
Q

How is Meiosis used?

A

To make gametes, sperm and egg cells, pollen, and ova

110
Q

Testes function

A

Organ which makes sperm cells.

Made up of many coiled tubules.

111
Q

What does Mitosis do?

A

Creates genetically identical copies of your cells

Allows you to grow and also replace damaged cells

112
Q

What does meiosis do?

A

Makes genetically varied cells, which halve the number of chromosomes
It is important when making sex cells (gametes)

113
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

Making identical copies of cells- mitosis

114
Q

What is sexual reproduction in a human?

A

when a sperm and an egg cell fuse to reproduce

115
Q

What is sexual reproduction in plants?

A

When an ova and pollen fuse together to reproduce

116
Q

What is a haploid cell?

A

A cell that contains single chromosomes

117
Q

What is a diploid cell?

A

A cell that contains pairs of chromosomes

118
Q

3 facts about amniotic fluid

A
  1. Stops foetal tissue from dying out
  2. Reduction of mechanical shock
  3. Water has a high SHC, thus it takes a lot of energy to change its temperature, which means the fluid is temperature regulated.
119
Q

5 steps of mitosis

A
  1. parent cell that wants to make copies of the cell. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes so it is a diploid
  2. Need chromosomes to be copied. This process is called DNA replication
  3. The pairs of chromosomes now line up and down the middle of the cell. Small fibres from opposite polls pull chromosomes apart, towards opposite ends.
  4. Cell splits in half
  5. Forms two genetically identical cells. Due to having 23 pairs of chromosomes, they are diploid.
120
Q

Hormone that changes female body at puberty

A

oestrogen

121
Q

Four changes to a girl at puberty

A
  1. Breasts grow
  2. Period starts
  3. Hips widen
  4. Become more attracted to boys
122
Q

Role of the placenta in development of the embryo

A
  1. Prevents mother’s blood from interacting with the embryo’s blood
  2. Separates mother and baby so the mother’s white blood cells to not attack the embryo as they see it as a foreign body
  3. Removes the embryo’s Co2 and Urea
  4. Supplying the embryo with nutrients eg glucose and Co2 that the embryo needs to grow and develop fully
123
Q

How do you know that a flower is insect pollinated?

A
  1. Large petals
  2. Stamens and anther enclosed
  3. Stigma closed
  4. Style shorter
  5. Not feathery stigma
  6. Reflect ultraviolet light to guide the insect
124
Q

How do you know that a flower is wind pollinated?

A
  1. Stamens and stigma are exposed outside of petals
  2. The petals are small and usually green
  3. There are no nectaries
125
Q

Describe the 8 steps from the growth of the pollen tube to fruit formation

A
  1. In plants pollen grains are deposited onto the stigma
  2. The pollen grain normally grows a pollen tube which grows down through the style
  3. Enzymes are secreted at the tip of the tube which digest the tissues of the style
  4. When the tube reaches an ovule, the male gamete travels through the tube, entering the ovule through a small hole called the micropyle
  5. It then fuses with the female gamete (ovum) in the process of fertilisation
  6. The fertilised ovum divides by mitosis to form the embryo
  7. The ovule develops into the seed
  8. The ovary develops into the fruit
126
Q

3 Conditions needed for germination

A
  1. Oxygen to aerobically respire
  2. Warmth- optimum temperature for enzymes
  3. Water to activate the enzymes
127
Q

Describe the test for germination

A

Cress seeds are added to cotton wool in test tubes

  • Tube A is put in a fridge (no warmth) and the rest are kept on a windowsill
  • In tube C, the cotton wool is moistened with boiled water and an oxygen absorber such as sodium pyrogallol is added (no oxygen)
  • Tube E is wrapped in foil (no light)
  • The cotton wool in tube B is kept dry (no water)
  • Tube D has all the conditions present

Check for germination after 2-3 days- you could combine class results and calculate a % or mean length of each seed condition

128
Q

What is Germination?

A

Germination is a process, controlled by enzymes , in which the seed begins to develop into a new young plant.

129
Q

Human impact of CO2

A

Burning fossil fuels

Slash and burn forest clearance

130
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

What you are deliberately changing (named in question)

131
Q

What is the dependent variable?

A

What you are measuring (named in question)

132
Q

What is the control variable?

A

The factors which may affect the dependent variable (you keep the same)

133
Q

Calculating magnification equation

A

objective magnification = size of image / size of object

134
Q

Cell definition

A

Smallest function of human life and they contain a number of organelles (structures that carry out a specific process that the cells need to survive)

The cells in an organism are not all the same - there are many different type, each of which has a specific job. We describe these different types of cells as specialised cells

135
Q

Tissues definition

A

A group of similar cells which work together to carry out the same function. eg muscle tissue in humans

136
Q

Organs definition

A

Made up of several types of tissues working together to carry out a more complex function

137
Q

Organ systems definition

A

Made up of several types of organs working together to carry out a complex function essential to life. eg circulating blood around the body

138
Q

What is a stem cell?

A

A single cell that can replicate itself, or differentiate into many cell types

139
Q

What is a specialised cell?

A

Stem cells differentiate (develop new features) to become specialised cells - ones that have the structures and proteins needed to carry out a specific job in the organism

140
Q

Describe the function and features of the red blood cell

A

Function: to transport oxygen in the blood

Features:

  • contains the protein haemoglobin, binds to and transports oxygen
  • No nucleus, more space for haemoglobin
  • Biconcave shape, larger surface area, so oxygen can enter and leave the cell more rapidly
141
Q

Describe the function and features of the sperm cell

A

Function: to transport male genetic material to the egg cell

Features:

  • Flagellum (tail), to allow the sperm cell to swim
  • Many mitochondria, to provide the energy needed for swimming
  • Acrosome, package of enzymes, to digest the jelly layer surrounding the egg cell
142
Q

Describe the function and features of the Palisade (leaf) cell

A

Function: to carry out photosynthesis

Features:

  • Many chloroplasts, trap light energy for photosynthesis
  • Tall and thin, cells can pack tightly so more of the light reaching the leaf is absorbed
143
Q

What are carbohydrates and what are they made of?

A
  • made of carbon hydrogen and oxygen
  • carbohydrates are broken down in a chemical reaction, respiration, to release energy in the form of ATP.
  • Simple sugars (eg glucose and fructose) are the smallest units of carbohydrates
  • Two sugar molecules can be joined together, eg glucose and fructose make sucrose.
144
Q

Benefits of fertilisers

A

Provide elements needed by plants to grow well
Eg nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium

Make crops grow faster and bigger so that yields are increased

145
Q

Downside to fertilisers

A

Can pollute water supplies causing eutrophication

Extra mineral ions cause algae to overgrow in water supplies, blocking sunlight and killing aquatic plants. As a result there is not enough oxygen dissolved in the water for aquatic organisms too survive

146
Q

Name 3 chemical pesticides

A

Fungicides (kill fungi)
Herbicides (kill weeds)
Insecticides (kill insects)

147
Q

Organ supplied with blood from hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery

A

Liver

148
Q

Organ supplied blood by pulmonary artery

A

Lungs

149
Q

Organ supplied with blood from renal artery

A

Kidney

150
Q

What happens to fish protein in the atomach

A

The fish once at the stomach will start chemical digestion. Protease will then break down the proteins in to amino acids. The stomach produces hydrochrolic acid which helps to digest and kills any harmful microorganisms.

Biology (12 decks)

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