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Alimentary system > Alimentary system physiology > Flashcards

Alimentary system physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Four main functions of the alimentary system?

A

Digestion
Secretion
Absorption
Motility

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2
Q

Two types of digestion occurring in alimentary system?

A

Chemical

Mechanical

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3
Q

Three pairs of salivary glands?

A

Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual

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4
Q

Where most absorption occurs in the alimentary canal?

A

The small intestine

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5
Q

The three parts of the small intestine?

A

Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum

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6
Q

Problem caused by consumption of food with too much osmolarity?

A

Dumping syndrome

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7
Q

Functions of saliva?

A

Lubrication

Dilution of foodstuffs

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8
Q

First part of alimentary canal where digestion occurs?

A

The mouth

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9
Q

Function of the oesophagus?

A

Conduit between oropharynx and stomach

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10
Q

Functions of the stomach?

A 
Storage of food
Digestion of proteins
Reduction of solid foodstuffs to chyme 
Production of intrinsic factor
Sterilisation of ingested food
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11
Q

Enzymes which digest protein?

A

Pepsinogens

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12
Q

Cells which produce pepsinogen?

A

Chief cells

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13
Q

Organ which secretes majority of digestive enzymes in alimentary canal?

A

Pancreas

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14
Q

Functions of the liver in the alimentary canal?

A

Filters blood coming from alimentary canal before it re-enters circulatory system
Secretes bile salts to aid with digestion and absorption of lipids

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15
Q

Functions of the gallbladder?

A

Stores and concentrates bile

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16
Q

Functions of small intestine?

A

Absorption of majority of nutrients

Final site of digestion of foodstuffs

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17
Q

Functions of the colon?

A

Absorption of water, salts and some vitamins
Compaction and storage of feces
Site of bacterial fermentation

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18
Q

Four common layers of the alimentary canal?

A

Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis externa
Serosa/adventitia

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19
Q

Subdivisions of mucosal layer of alimentary canal?

A

Epithelium
Lamina propria
Muscularis mucosae

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20
Q

Outer layer of gut tube within peritoneal cavity?

A

Serosa

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21
Q

Outer layer of gut tube external to peritoneal cavity?

A

Adventitia

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22
Q

Two layers of muscle in muscularis external?

A

Circular layer

Longitudinal layer

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23
Q

Part of alimentary canal with third layer in muscularis externa?

A

The stomach

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24
Q

Third layer of muscle tissue in muscularis externa of the stomach?

A

Oblique layer

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25
Q

Two parts of alimentary canal with submucosal glands?

A

Oesophagus

Duodenum

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26
Q

Two layers of gut wall that submucosal plexus exists between?

A

Submucosa

Muscularis externa

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27
Q

Two layers of gut wall that myenteric plexus exists between?

A

Circular layer of muscularis externa

Longitudinal layer of muscularis externa

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28
Q

Layer of gut tube providing motility function of alimentary canal and their innervation?

A

Muscularis externa innervated by myenteric plexus

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29
Q

Nerve plexuses forming enteric nervous system?

A

Submucosal plexus and myenteric plexus

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30
Q

Epithelium present in mouth, oesophagus and anal canal?

A

Stratified squamous epithelium

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31
Q

Epithelium present in stomach, small intestine and large intestine?

A

Simple columnar epithelium

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32
Q

Functions of epithelial part of mucosa?

A

Absorption of nutrients
Barrier between gut lumen and the body
Synthesis and secretion of enzymes, hormones and mucus

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33
Q

Function of stratified squamous epithelium in mouth, oesophagus and anal canal?

A

Protection from friction and abrasion

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34
Q

Layer of gut tube containing blood and lymphatic vessels?

A

Submucosa

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35
Q

Inner layer of muscularis externa?

A

Circular

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36
Q

Outer layer of muscularis externa?

A

Longitudinal

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37
Q

Two forms of motility present in the alimentary canal?

A

Peristalsis

Segmentation

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38
Q

Form of nervous control mainly governing the alimentary canal?

A

Autonomic

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39
Q

Parasympathetic innervation of alimentary canal?

A

Vagus nerve

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40
Q

Sympathetic innervation of alimentary canal?

A

Splanchnic nerve

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41
Q

Function in alimentary canal not controlled by the vagus nerve?

A

Salivary secretion

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42
Q

Nerves controlling salivary secretion?

A

Facial nerve

Glossopharyngeal nerve

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43
Q

Effect of parasympathetic input on gut activity?

A

Increases gut motility

Increases rate of secretions

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44
Q

Effect of sympathetic input on gut activity?

A

Decreases gut motility

Decreases rate of secretions

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45
Q

Artery mainly supplying the foregut?

A

Celiac trunk

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46
Q

Artery mainly supplying the midgut?

A

Superior mesenteric artery

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47
Q

Artery mainly supplying the hindgut?

A

Inferior mesenteric artery

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48
Q

Structure which all blood from the gut drains through before eventually returning to the heart?

A

The liver

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49
Q

Reason that the liver and gut are in series?

A

The liver filters all the blood coming from the gut to purify it before it is returned into the normal circulatory system

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50
Q

Two veins which converge to form the hepatic portal vein?

A

Superior mesenteric vein

Splenic vein

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51
Q

Nutrient and oxygen content of blood in hepatic artery?

A

Nutrient content - low

Oxygen content - high

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52
Q

Nutrient and oxygen content of blood in hepatic portal vein?

A

Nutrient content - high

Oxygen content - low

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53
Q

Our principle dietary constituents?

A

Carbohydrate
Fat
Protein

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54
Q

Dietary constituent with highest energy density?

A

Fat

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55
Q

Dietary constituent which is our primary energy source?

A

Carbohydrate

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56
Q

Other substances necessary in our diet outside of principal dietary constituents?

A

Vitamins
Minerals
Water

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57
Q

Form of carbohydrate absorbed in the alimentary canal?

A

Monosaccharides/hexose sugars

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58
Q

Hexose sugars absorbed in alimentary canal?

A

Glucose
Fructose
Galactose

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59
Q

Disaccharides are formed by?

A

Two hexose sugars bonded together

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60
Q

Disaccharides present in our diet?

A

Lactose
Maltose
Sucrose

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61
Q

Lactose consists of?

A

Glucose and galactose

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62
Q

Sucrose consists of?

A

Glucose and fructose

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63
Q

Maltose consists of?

A

Two glucose molecules

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64
Q

Form of enzymes which digest disaccharides and their location in the alimentary canal?

A

Brush border enzymes found in the small intestine

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65
Q

Form of carbohydrate we consume most commonly in our diet?

A

Polysaccharides

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66
Q

Polysaccharide we consume most commonly in our diet?

A

Starch

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67
Q

Bonds holding glucose molecules together in starch?

A

Alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds

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68
Q

Enzyme which breaks down alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds?

A

Amylase

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69
Q

Bonds holding glucose molecules together in cellulose?

A

Beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds

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70
Q

Enzyme which breaks down beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds?

A

Cellulase

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71
Q

Polysaccharide which dietary fibre consists of?

A

Cellulose

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72
Q

Cellulose consumed in our diet is broken down by?

A

Gut bacteria

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73
Q

Polysaccharide we use to store carbohydrate in our own body?

A

Glycogen

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74
Q

Site of storage for most of our glycogen?

A

The liver

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75
Q

Bonds holding glucose molecules together in glycogen?

A

Alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds

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76
Q

Lack of which enzyme produces lactose intolerance?

A

Lactase

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77
Q

Projections of epithelium in small intestine which increase surface area?

A

Villi

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78
Q

Function of villi in small intestine?

A

Massively increase surface area available for absorption

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79
Q

Structures holding columnar cells in epithelium of small intestine together?

A

Tight junctions

Adherens junctions

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80
Q

Number of membranes that molecules must cross to enter blood from lumen of gut tube and the names of these membranes?

A

Two membranes
Apical membrane
Basal (basolateral) membrane

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81
Q

Structure required to move water soluble molecules across the membranes of cells in the epithelium of the small intestine?

A

Transport proteins

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82
Q

Molecule glucose is co-transported with across the apical membrane of epithelial cells in alimentary canal?

A

Sodium

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83
Q

Transport protein that glucose moves through on apical surface of epithelial cells in alimentary canal?

A

SGLT1 (sodium glucose transport protein 1)

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84
Q

Transport protein that glucose moves through on basal surface of epithelial cells in alimentary canal?

A

GLUT-2

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85
Q

Molecule drawn into the blood along with glucose during its transport?

A

Water

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86
Q

Molecule followed by water into the blood during transport of glucose?

A

Sodium

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87
Q

Molecule galactose is co-transported with across the apical surface of membrane epithelial cells in alimentary canal?

A

Sodium

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88
Q

Molecule drawn into the blood along with galactose during its transport?

A

Water

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89
Q

Structure which moves sodium out of the cell to create gradient required for glucose transport?

A

Sodium-potassium pump (Na/KATPase)

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90
Q

Normal blood glucose level in humans?

A

5mmol

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91
Q

Transport proteins fructose moves through during transport from gut lumen to blood?

A

GLUT-5

GLUT-2

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92
Q

Hexose sugars which cause water absorption during their transport into the blood?

A

Glucose

Galactose

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93
Q

Bonds linking amino acids together in protein?

A

Peptide bonds

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94
Q

Base monomer of proteins?

A

Amino acids

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95
Q

Name given to small proteins (3-10 amino acids in length)?

A

Peptides

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96
Q

Enzymes which break down peptide bonds?

A

Proteases

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97
Q

Enzymes which break peptide bonds in the middle of proteins?

A

Endoproteases

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98
Q

Enzymes which break peptide bonds on terminal amino acids in proteins?

A

Exoproteases

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99
Q

Main unit that protein is absorbed as in alimentary canal?

A

Amino acids

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100
Q

Molecule amino acids are co-transported with during their absorption into the blood from the gut lumen?

A

Sodium

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101
Q

Molecule which also moves into the blood during the transport of amino acids?

A

Water

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102
Q

Molecule followed by water during the transport of amino acids into the blood?

A

Sodium

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103
Q

Molecule peptides are co-transported with during their absorption into the blood from the gut lumen?

A

Hydrogen ion

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104
Q

Climate maintained at apical surface of epithelial cells in alimentary canal to allow for transport of peptides?

A

Acid microclimate

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105
Q

Reason for acid microclimate maintained at apical surface of epithelial cells in small intestine?

A

Provides a supply of hydrogen ions to allow for the transport of peptides across the apical membrane by their co-transporter protein
Allows for breakdown of micelles to release fatty acids and monoglycerides to the cells

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106
Q

Enzyme which begins digestion of fat?

A

Pancreatic lipase

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107
Q

Part of alimentary canal where fat digestion begins?

A

Duodenum

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108
Q

Products of pancreatic lipase acting on triacylglycerol?

A

Monoglyceride

2 fatty acids

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109
Q

Emulsification is?

A

Breakdown of large lipid goblets into smaller droplets which do not coalesce again

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110
Q

Emulsification requires?

A

Mechanical breakdown of large lipid goblets

Emulsifying agent

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111
Q

Effect of emulsification on surface area available for action of pancreatic lipase?

A

Massively increases surface area available

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112
Q

Layer of gut wall responsible for mechanical component of emulsification?

A

Muscularis externa

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113
Q

Bile salts and phospholipids are what type of molecule?

A

Amphipathic

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114
Q

Amphipathic molecules have?

A

Polar component

Non-polar component

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115
Q

Amphipathic molecules prevent re-aggregation of small lipid droplets by?

A

Binding with them so that their polar component faces externally and repels other droplets that also have polar sections of amphipathic molecules on their external surface

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116
Q

Unit that monogylcerides and fatty acids are transported within in the intestinal lumen?

A

Micelle

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117
Q

Micelles are composed of?

A

Monoglyceride
Fatty acids
Bile salts
Phospholipids

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118
Q

Polar component of micelles?

A

External surface

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119
Q

Non-polar component of micelles?

A

Internal surface

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120
Q

Site of intestinal lumen where micelles break down?

A

Acid microclimate

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121
Q

Structure within cells that products of fat digestion immediately enter upon exiting the intestinal lumen?

A

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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122
Q

Molecule formed from products of fat digestion within smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Triacylglycerol

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123
Q

Extracellular fat droplets released from basolateral membrane of intestinal epithelial cells?

A

Chylomicron

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124
Q

Structure chylomicrons enter after exiting the cell?

A

Lacteals of the lymphatic system

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125
Q

System which uptakes and transports chylomicrons after they leave intestinal epithelial cells?

A

The lymphatic system

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126
Q

2 classes of vitamins in our diet?

A

Water soluble

Fat soluble

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127
Q

Structure that lipid soluble vitamins are transported in within intestinal lumen?

A

Micelles

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128
Q

Fat soluble vitamins?

A

Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin K

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129
Q

Water soluble vitamins?

A

B group vitamins
Vitamin C
Folic acid

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130
Q

Vitamin which binds with intrinsic factor?

A

Vitamin B12

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131
Q

Site of intrinsic factor production?

A

Stomach

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132
Q

Site of vitamin B12 absorption?

A

Distant ileum

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133
Q

Condition caused by vitamin B12 deficiency?

A

Pernicious anaemia

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134
Q

Essential function of the stomach?

A

Production of intrinsic factor

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135
Q

Site of storage of vitamin B12?

A

The liver

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136
Q

Vitamin B12 is required for?

A

Maturation of erythrocytes

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137
Q

Site of iron absorption in alimentary canal?

A

The duodenum

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138
Q

Intracellular iron store?

A

Ferritin

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139
Q

Iron in blood is bound to?

A

Transferrin

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140
Q

Method of controlling body’s iron status?

A

Alteration of the quantity of ferritin within cells

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141
Q

Component of our diet controlled at the level of the gut?

A

Iron

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142
Q

Hyperaemia?

A

Excessive quantity of iron

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143
Q

Effect of hyperaemia on ferritin levels?

A

Increase in ferritin levels

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144
Q

Effect of iron deficiency anaemia on ferritin levels?

A

Decrease in ferritin levels

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145
Q

Colour of feces in hyperaemic patients?

A

Black

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146
Q

Components of saliva?

A 
Water 
Alpha-amylase 
Mucins
Lysozymes
Electrolytes
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147
Q

Component of saliva which catalyses breakdown of polysaccharides?

A

Alpha-amylase

148
Q

Component of saliva which acts as a lubricant?

A

Mucins

149
Q

Component of saliva which softens and dilutes particles?

A

Water

150
Q

Main protein component of saliva?

A

Mucins

151
Q

Polysaccharides broken down by alpha-amylase?

A

Starch

Glycogen

152
Q

Bonds broken down by alpha-amylase?

A

Alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds

153
Q

Bactericidal component of saliva?

A

Lysozymes

154
Q

First point in alimentary canal where food begins to become sterilised?

A

The mouth

155
Q

Type of glands that salivary glands are?

A

Exocrine

156
Q

Tube that parotid gland secretions travel along before entering the mouth?

A

Parotid duct

157
Q

Types of alveoli found in salivary glands?

A

Mucous alveoli

Serous alveoli

158
Q

Alveoli which secrete alpha-amylase?

A

Serous alveoli

159
Q

Alveoli which secrete mucins?

A

Mucous alveoli

160
Q

Effect of sympathetic input on salivary secretions?

A

Increase secretion of viscous, protein rich saliva

161
Q

Effect of parasympathetic input on salivary secretions?

A

Increase secretions of profuse watery saliva

162
Q

Autonomic input producing protein rich saliva?

A

Sympathetic

163
Q

Autonomic input producing watery saliva?

A

Parasympathetic

164
Q

Part of alimentary canal acting as a conduit between oropharynx and stomach?

A

The oesophagus

165
Q

Length of average oesophagus?

A

25cm

166
Q

Outermost layer of the oesophagus?

A

Adventitia

167
Q

Function of epithelial layer of oesophagus?

A

Protection from wear and tear

168
Q

Type of epithelium present in oesophagus?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinised epithelium

169
Q

Type of glands located in submucosa of the oesophagus?

A

Mucous glands

170
Q

Parts of the oesophagus consisting of skeletal muscle?

A

Muscularis externa in its upper third

171
Q

Parts of the oesophagus consisting of smooth muscle?

A

Muscularis externa in lower two thirds

172
Q

Number of oesophageal sphincters and their names?

A

Two
Upper oesophageal sphincter
Lower oesophageal sphincter

173
Q

Function of lower oesophageal sphincter?

A

Prevent reflux of stomach contents

174
Q

Function of upper oesophageal sphincter?

A

Prevent reflux of food during swallowing

175
Q

Location of swallowing control centre?

A

Medulla

176
Q

Structure preventing food from entering trachea during swallowing?

A

Epiglottis

177
Q

Voluntary phase of swallowing?

A

Oral phase

178
Q

Stage of swallowing where reflexive control takes over?

A

Pharyngeal phase

179
Q

Structure preventing food from refluxing once it has entered the oesophagus?

A

Upper oesophageal sphincter

180
Q

Type of motility which propels food along oesophagus?

A

Peristalsis

181
Q

Nerve causing reflexive relaxation of stomach after swallowing?

A

Vagus nerve

182
Q

Part of stomach anatomy which gives it wide range of potential volumes?

A

Rugae (gastric folds)

183
Q

Maximum potential volume of stomach?

A

1500mls (1.5 litres)

184
Q

Reason we need stomach as a food store?

A

Prevents dumping syndrome and shock

185
Q

Fluid that stomach reduces our food into?

A

Chyme

186
Q

Functions of gastric acid

A

Reduction of foodstuffs into chyme

Sterilisation of foodstuffs

187
Q

Outer layer of the stomach?

A

Serosa

188
Q

Location of most oblique muscle in stomach?

A

Pyloric region

189
Q

Sphincter between stomach and duodenum?

A

Pyloric sphincter

190
Q

Parts of the stomach?

A 
Fundus
Body 
Antrum 
Pyloric region
Cardiac region
191
Q

Folds of mucosa and submucosa in stomach?

A

Rugae (gastric folds)

192
Q

Three types of cell in gastric gland?

A

Parietal cell
Chief cell
Mucous neck cell

193
Q

Deep invaginations in the epithelium of the stomach?

A

Gastric pits

194
Q

Function of the fundus of the stomach?

A

Storage

195
Q

The stomach protects itself from corrosion by gastric acid and autodigestion from pepsin by?

A

Production of thick pH neutral mucus

196
Q

Chief cells secrete?

A

Pepsinogen

197
Q

Parietal cells secrete?

A

Hydrochloric acid

Intrinsic factor

198
Q

Inactive form of pepsin?

A

Pepsinogen

199
Q

Inactive form of an enzyme?

A

Zymogen

200
Q

Function of the antrum of stomach?

A

Mechanical digestion

Production of gastrin

201
Q

G cells secrete?

A

Gastrin

202
Q

Cells near the entrance to gastric pits secrete?

A

Protective mucus

203
Q

Cells which secrete intrinsic factor?

A

Parietal cells

204
Q

Molecules required for production of gastric acid?

A

Hydrogen ions
Chloride ions
Water

205
Q

Hormones which influence production of gastric acid?

A

Histamine
Gastrin
Acetylcholine
Prostaglandins

206
Q

Effect of gastrin on gastric acid secretion?

A

Increases gastric acid secretion

207
Q

Effect of gastrin on proton potassium pump?

A

Increases action of proton potassium pump

208
Q

Effect of histamine on gastric acid secretion?

A

Increases gastric acid secretion

209
Q

Effect of acetylcholine on gastric acid secretion?

A

Increases gastric acid secretion

210
Q

Effect of prostaglandins on gastric acid secretion?

A

Decreases gastric acid secretion

211
Q

Three main ways gastric acid secretion can be altered and hormones mediating the mechanisms?

A

Neurocrine - acetylcholine
Endocrine - gastrin
Paracrine - histamine

212
Q

Effect of increased vagus nerve activity on gastric acid secretion?

A

Increases gastric acid secretion

213
Q

Effect of gastrin and acetylcholine on enterochromaffin like cells?

A

Increases secretion of histamine from enterochromaffin like cells

214
Q

Trigger for release of secretin?

A

Acid in duodenum

215
Q

Trigger for release of GIP?

A

Fat or carbohydrates in duodenum

216
Q

Action of secretin on gastrin?

A

Reduces secretion of gastrin

Reduces effect of gastrin on parietal cells

217
Q

Enterogastrones are released from?

A

Gland cells in duodenal mucosa

218
Q

Main enterogastrones?

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Secretin
Gastrointestinal inhibitory peptide (GIP)

219
Q

Trigger for release of enterogastrones?

A

Acid, hypertonic solutions, monoglycerides or fatty acids in duodenum

220
Q

Actions of enterogastrones?

A

Reduce gastric emptying

Reduce gastric acid secretion

221
Q

Function of enterogastrones?

A

Prevent excessive buildup of acid in duodenum

222
Q

Triggers for conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin?

A

Acidic environment

Presence of pepsin

223
Q

Action of pepsin on pepsinogen?

A

Converts it into pepsin

224
Q

Cells which secrete mucus in the stomach?

A

Mucus neck cells

Surface epithelial cells

225
Q

Functions of mucus secreted in the stomach?

A

Protection from mechanical damage
Protection from corrosive gastric acid
Protection from auto-digestion by pepsin

226
Q

Molecule which gives gastric mucus its neutral pH?

A

Bicarbonate

227
Q

Direction of movement of peristaltic waves through the stomach?

A

Body to pyloric region

228
Q

Site where muscle is thickest in the stomach?

A

Antrum

229
Q

Strength of contractions in body of stomach?

A

Weak

230
Q

Structure controlling delivery of chyme to duodenum?

A

Pyloric sphincter

231
Q

Reasons for controlling delivery of chyme to duodenum?

A

Prevents dumping syndrome
Prevents erosion of epithelium by acidic chyme
Allows pancreatic enzymes to become active by preventing buildup of acidic contents

232
Q

Cells producing slow waves in stomach?

A

Pacemaker cells

233
Q

Layer of stomach where slow waves are produced?

A

Longitudinal layer of muscularis externa

234
Q

Spontaneous depolarisation and repolarisation of cells in longitudinal muscle of stomach?

A

Slow waves

235
Q

Effect of gastrin on stomach contractions?

A

Increases contractions

236
Q

Effect of distension of stomach wall on contractions?

A

Increases contractions

237
Q

Effect of presence of fat, amino acids, hypertonic solutions or acidic solutions in duodenum on stomach contractions?

A

Decreases contractions

238
Q

Messengers responsible for pushing slow waves in stomach to threshold potential?

A

Gastrin

Acetylcholine

239
Q

Glands in duodenal submucosa?

A

Brunner’s glands

240
Q

Brunner’s glands secrete?

A

Bicarbonate

241
Q

Hormone responsible for bicarbonate release?

A

Secretin

242
Q

Function of bicarbonate secretion from Brunner’s glands?

A

Neutralise acidic contents of the stomach within the duodenum

243
Q

Sources of bicarbonate within duodenum?

A

Brunner’s glands
Liver
Duct cells of pancreas

244
Q

Main anatomical parts of pancreas?

A 
Tail 
Body 
Neck 
Head 
Uncinate process
245
Q

Types of glands found in pancreas

A

Endocrine

Exocrine

246
Q

Exocrine portion of pancreas?

A

Acinar cells

Duct cells

247
Q

Endocrine portion of pancreas?

A

Islets of Langerhans

248
Q

Part of pancreas located in curvature of duodenum?

A

Head

249
Q

Secretions of endocrine portion of pancreas?

A

Insulin
Glucagon
Somatostatin

250
Q

Site of entry of pancreatic secretions into duodenum?

A

Hepatopancreatic ampulla (sphincter of Oddi)

251
Q

Location of hepatopancreatic ampulla within duodenum?

A

Descending portion of duodenum

252
Q

Ducts entering duodenum at hepatopancreatic ampulla?

A

Common bile duct

Main pancreatic duct

253
Q

Pancreatic duct cells secrete?

A

Bicarbonate

254
Q

Pancreatic acinar cells secrete?

A

Pancreatic digestive enzymes

255
Q

Method by which pancreas avoids autodigestion?

A

Pancreatic enzymes are secreted as zymogens

256
Q

Function of enterokinase?

A

Converts pancreatic enzymes from zymogens into their active form

257
Q

Effect of trypsin on pancreatic enzymes?

A

Converts them from zymogens into their active form

258
Q

Location of enterokinase?

A

Brush border of duodenal enterocytes

259
Q

Site where pancreatic enzymes become active?

A

Duodenum

260
Q

Effect of cholecystokinin on pancreatic secretions?

A

Increases secretion of pancreatic enzymes from acinar cells

261
Q

Effect of secretin on pancreatic secretions?

A

Increases secretion of bicarbonate from duct cells

262
Q

Effect of acidic pH on pancreatic enzymes?

A

Prevents them from functioning properly

263
Q

Categories of pancreatic enzymes?

A 
Elastases 
Lipases
Phospholipases
Alpha-amylase
Proteases 
Nucleases
264
Q

Function of bile?

A

Emulsification of fats in the alimentary canal

265
Q

Largest internal organ?

A

Liver

266
Q

Major lobes of the liver?

A

Left

Right

267
Q

Minor lobes of the liver?

A

Caudate

Quadrate

268
Q

Structures forming porta hepatis?

A

Hepatic artery
Hepatic portal vein
Hepatic duct

269
Q

Bile duct is formed by?

A

Cystic duct

Common hepatic duct

270
Q

Site of opening of bile duct into duodenum?

A

Hepatopancreatic ampulla

271
Q

Structure attaching liver to anterior abdominal wall?

A

Falciform ligament

272
Q

Structure attaching liver to underside of diaphragm?

A

Coronary ligament

273
Q

Lobes between which porta hepatis is located?

A

Caudate and quadrate

274
Q

Functional units of liver?

A

Lobules

275
Q

Structures sitting at the corner of each liver lobule?

A

Branch of hepatic artery
Branch of hepatic portal vein
Branch of hepatic duct

276
Q

Structure at the centre of each liver lobule?

A

Branch of hepatic vein

277
Q

Hepatic vein empties into?

A

Inferior vena cava

278
Q

Functional cells of the liver?

A

Hepatocytes

279
Q

Channels between hepatic cords in liver lobules?

A

Hepatic sinusoids

280
Q

Bile secreting cells in liver?

A

Hepatocytes

281
Q

Direction of blood flow in liver lobules?

A

External to internal

282
Q

Vessel carrying blood from alimentary canal into liver?

A

Hepatic portal vein

283
Q

Vessels feeding blood into lobules of liver?

A

Hepatic portal vein

Hepatic artery

284
Q

Functions of hepatocytes?

A

Bile synthesis
Nutrient storage
Nutrient interconversion
Detoxification of blood

285
Q

Fate of excess glucose in our diet?

A

Conversion to glycogen and storage in hepatocytes

286
Q

Alimentary function of the liver?

A

Synthesis of bile salts for emulsification of fat

287
Q

Components of bile?

A 
Bile acids
Bile pigments
Lecithin
Bicarbonate
Cholesterol 
Toxic metals
288
Q

Components of bile synthesised in the liver?

A

Bile acids
Lecithin
Cholesterol

289
Q

Primary bile pigment?

A

Bilirubin

290
Q

Source of bilirubin?

A

Haemoglobin of dead erythrocytes

291
Q

Duct cells of liver secrete?

A

Bicarbonate

292
Q

Bile salts are synthesised from?

A

Cholesterol

293
Q

Bile acids are converted to bile salts by?

A

Conjugation of bile acids with glycine or taurine

294
Q

Bile acids are conjugated to?

A

Increase their solubility

295
Q

Site in alimentary canal where bile salts are reabsorbed?

A

Distal ileum

296
Q

Layers of the gallbladder?

A

Mucosa
Muscularis
Serosa

297
Q

Anatomical feature of gallbladder which allows it to expand?

A

Mucosal folds (rugae)

298
Q

Bile enters gallbladder by?

A

Backing up the bile duct when the sphincter of Oddi is closed

299
Q

Gallbladder concentrates bile by?

A

Absorbing sodium and water from the bile

300
Q

Effect of cholecystokinin on gallbladder?

A

Causes contraction of the muscularis

301
Q

Trigger for release of bile into duodenum?

A

Presence of fats in duodenum

302
Q

Effect of cholecystokinin on sphincter of Oddi?

A

Relaxation of sphincter of Oddi and opening of hepatopancreatic ampulla

303
Q

Hormone which increases bicarbonate secretion?

A

Secretin

304
Q

Hormones which decrease gastric emptying?

A

Cholecystokinin

Secretin

305
Q

Hormone which contracts gallbladder and relaxes sphincter of Oddi?

A

Cholecystokinin

306
Q

Hormone which increases secretion of pancreatic enzymes?

A

Cholecystokinin

307
Q

Longest part of the alimentary canal?

A

Small intestine

308
Q

Functions of the duodenum?

A

Digestion of foodstuffs
Neutralisation of stomach acid
Iron absorption

309
Q

Site of majority of nutrient absorption?

A

Jejunum

310
Q

Function of the jejunum?

A

Absorption of nutrients

311
Q

Order of parts of small intestine?

A

Duodenum -> jejunum -> ileum

312
Q

Functions of the ileum?

A

Absorption of NaCl
Absorption of water
Dehydration of chyme

313
Q

Anatomical features of small intestine which maximise absorptive capabilities?

A

Plicae circulares
Villi
Microvilli

314
Q

Mechanism of water absorption in ileum?

A

Passively follows absorbed NaCl

315
Q

Large folds within the small intestine?

A

Plicae circulares

316
Q

Functions of plicae circulares?

A

Increase surface area available for absorption

Produce circular motion to mix chyme with digestive enzymes

317
Q

Invaginations of surface epithelium between villi?

A

Crypts of Lieberkuhn

318
Q

Average lifetime of epithelial cell within small intestine?

A

Five days

319
Q

Structures within villi?

A

Arterial branch of circulation
Venous branch of circulation
Lacteal

320
Q

Cells interspersed between columnar epithelial cells in small intestine?

A

Goblet cells

321
Q

Anatomical feature which maximally increases surface area of small intestine for absorption?

A

Microvilli

322
Q

Function of crypts of Lieberkuhn?

A

Secrete water into intestinal lumen

323
Q

Substances absorbed by villi?

A 
Water
Monosaccharides
Peptides
Amino acids 
Fats
Minerals 
Vitamins
NaCl
324
Q

Method by which crypts of Lieberkuhn secrete water?

A

Passively by release of chloride ions into intestinal lumen

325
Q

Functions of water secreted into intestinal lumen?

A

Create mucus in conjunction with goblet cells
Maintain intestinal contents in liquid state
Bring intestinal contents into contact with absorptive surface area
Mix intestinal contents with digestive enzymes
Dilutes and washes away potentially injurious substances

326
Q

Molecules co-transported with chloride ions from blood into intestinal epithelial cells?

A

Sodium

Potassium

327
Q

Protein channel by which chloride leaves intestinal epithelial cells and enters intestinal lumen?

A

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)

328
Q

Two forms of intestinal motility?

A

Segmentation

Peristalsis

329
Q

Form of intestinal motility prevalent during a meal?

A

Segmentation

330
Q

Motility which clears out small intestine?

A

Peristalsis

331
Q

Function of segmentation?

A

Mixes intestinal contents with digestive enzymes to allow digestion to occur

332
Q

Cells generating depolarisation to produce segmentation in small intestine?

A

Pacemaker cells

333
Q

Frequency of contractions in small intestine is determined by?

A

Basic electrical rhythm (BER)

334
Q

Reason for decrease in BER moving distally through small intestine?

A

Ensures gradual movement of intestinal contents towards colon

335
Q

Effect of parasympathetic nervous system on contractions in small intestine?

A

Increases strength of contractions

336
Q

Effect of sympathetic nervous system on contractions in small intestine?

A

Decreases strength of contractions

337
Q

Inputs affecting BER?

A

None

338
Q

Form of motility in small intestine which occurs first?

A

Segmentation

339
Q

Method by which undigested material is moved out of small intestine?

A

Peristalsis created by migrating motility complex (MMC)

340
Q

Pattern of peristaltic activity which moves undigested material out of small intestine?

A

Migrating motility complex (MMC)

341
Q

Effect of food in stomach on migrating motility complex?

A

Cessates migrating motility complex

342
Q

Hormone which initiates migrating motility complex?

A

Motilin

343
Q

Direction of movement of contents of small intestine under migrating motility complex?

A

Oesophagus to rectum

344
Q

Effect of chyme entering caecum on ileocaecal valve?

A

Contracts ileocaecal valve

345
Q

Order of parts of large intestine?

A 
Caecum 
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum 
Anal canal
346
Q

Small projection of tissue coming from caecum?

A

Vermiform appendix

347
Q

Tissue within appendix?

A

Lymphoid tissue

348
Q

Layer of muscularis externa in colon which is incomplete?

A

Longitudinal layer

349
Q

Bands of smooth muscle tissue within colon?

A

Teniae coli

350
Q

Pouches/sacculations in colon?

A

Haustra

351
Q

Epithelium within colon?

A

Simple columnar epithelium

352
Q

Cells found within crypts of colon?

A

Goblet cells

353
Q

Function of mucus secreted in colon?

A

Lubricate the colon for smooth passage of fecal material

354
Q

Type of muscle within external anal sphincter?

A

Skeletal muscle

355
Q

Epithelium present within anal canal?

A

Simple columnar epithelium -> stratified squamous epithelium

356
Q

Type of muscle within internal anal sphincter?

A

Smooth muscle

357
Q

Anal sphincter under voluntary control?

A

External anal sphincter

358
Q

Substances absorbed by colon?

A

Sodium

Water

359
Q

Material digested by bacterial colonies within colon?

A

Cellulose

360
Q

Nutrient gained from bacterial fermentation in colon?

A

Vitamin K

361
Q

Trigger for defeacation reflex?

A

Distension of rectum by fecal material

362
Q

Nerve controlling defeacation reflex?

A

Pelvic splanchnic nerve

363
Q

Autonomic control governing defeacation reflex?

A

Parasympathetic

364
Q

Mechanism causing diarrhoea during enteric infection?

A

Increased secretion of chloride ions from crypt cells

365
Q

Intracellular messengers increased by bacterial enterotoxins?

A

cAMP
cGMP
Calcium

366
Q

Components of oral rehydration therapy?

A

Glucose
Sodium
Water

367
Q

Mechanism of oral rehydration therapy?

A

Increased intake of glucose and sodium leads to increased water absorption by villus cells due to pathways of absorption

Alimentary system (4 decks)

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