Alexander II Government 1855-1881 (Unit 1, Topic 2)

Question 1

The Tsar?

Answer 1

Title given to leaders of Russia from 1547-1917

Question 2

Autocracy?

Answer 2

System of government by one person with absolute power

Question 3

Constitutional Monarchy?

Answer 3

A system of government in which a monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government.

Question 4

Serfdom?

Answer 4

A system of government which had existed in Russia since the 12th century where landowners owned peasants

Question 5

Reactionary?

Answer 5

A political philosophy that favours policies which are backward looking to restore the past

Question 6

Political Authority?

Answer 6

Refers to the legitimate authority of the state or tsar to rule and ensure citizens obey their rule

Question 7

What did Autocracy mean in 1855?

Answer 7

The tsar had an autocratic rule by law, 1832 Fundamental Laws Article 1 states that ‘they has God given powers and all must bow to his reign.’ There are no checks on his power and he has no constraints by law. His imperial edicts were the law of the land

Question 8

What was Orthodoxy like in 1855?

Answer 8

Supported by the Tsar who was appointed the Over-Procurator of the Holy Synod (leader of bishops in the church). A challenge to the Tsars authority was a challenge to God and his will

Question 9

What was Nationality like in 1855?

Answer 9

Nationalists (Slavophiles) believed that Russian culture was unique and superior to that of any other nation. They knew that autocracy was the best form of government. They believed Russian ways were superior and had to be protected from Western Influence

Question 10

Who were the Mir?

Answer 10

An assembly of households that discussed issues in meetings and distributed land among the peasants, typically made from the elder peasants

Question 11

What was the Russian Orthodox Church?

Answer 11

Since the 15th century it was the state religion. About 70% of the population were Russian Orthodox. There had been no reformation in Russia and it was a branch of Christianity independent of the Pope. Russians believed they were the only ones to keep true faith. It was bound up with autocracy since the Tsar had divine right

Peasants were heavily dependent on ROC for knowledge due to their illiteracy

Question 12

Why was the Crimean War a Catalyst for the Emancipation reform?

Answer 12

The humiliation and inefficiencies of the Crimean War were a major reform catalyst. Russia was clearly lagging behind Europe and many believed serfdom was the institution that lay at the heart of the problems. The War dew attention to the state of the army, with its poor conscription and promise of freedom for the surviving few. A reform could only be achieved though if Emancipation was abolished

Question 13

Why was the Tsars Morals a Cause for the Emancipation Reform?

Answer 13

Dating back generations of Tsars, many thought that serfdom was unethical and morally wrong. Alexander II had lots of close inspiration to pick from and agree with on serfdoms ethnic dilemmas

Question 14

What were the Negatives of the Emancipation Reform?

Answer 14

Sorting of land now took years to complete and 15% of peasants remained temporarily obligated to their landowners due to this land shortage. They had to pay the government for the next 49 years for the land they already owned

There were 1000 disturbances in 1861 and Landowners decided which land they would give away and their market value. The money paid to nobles wasn’t enough and was only used to pay off noble debts.

It created a division between the Tsar and the landowners with a new desire in popular political participation in the government from nobles. Peasants hated the redemption payments

Question 15

What was the Military Reform?

Answer 15

A series of reforms by Dmitri Milyutin, Minister of War, over a twenty year period made the army less brutal, smaller less expensive but more professional

Question 16

What were the Positives of the Military Reform?

Answer 16

More power given to district commanders with fifteen new districts made bringing war reserves in a lot easier. The smaller standing army reduced government expenditure with from 1862-1870 the reserves increasing from 210,000 to 550,000.

Officer training was greatly improved and military colleges established. Punishments were made less severe and there was a reduction in the number of offences that carried corporal punishment and soldiers living conditions improved.

Question 17

What were the Negatives of the Military Reform?

Answer 17

The ranks were still largely peasant conscripts who were uneducated and illiterate with substandard weaponry. This reduced the effectiveness of their training.

The reforms were opposed by the nobility who did not want to mix their sons with the peasants. They preferred the old system and where their sons were volunteered into the army as officers. However, some were able to find substitutes to replace their sons

Question 18

What was the Censorship Reform?

Answer 18

Alexander began to relax the rigid system of censorship in the first year of his regime. He never considered abolishing censorship altogether but rather to loosen the governments grip on the texts of the country

Question 19

What were the Positives of the Censorship Reform?

Answer 19

From 1865 newspapers books and periodicals no longer had to submit to prior censorship, newspapers could discuss government policy and editors were given more freedom. Foreign publications were permitted with government approval.

There was a generally more relaxed atmosphere led to a huge growth in the number of books and periodicals published. There was a growing literate readership and the public opinion was starting to take shape and was becoming more informed. It was not necessarily anti-government but an autocratic regime does not generally appreciate the free flow of opinion.

Bolder editors were prepared to push the boundaries of what was deemed dangerous. Some journals were overtly radical and critical of the regime. Others took more moderate lines but were critical of the government, for instance, when reporting court cases. Some reported social problems like crime, alcoholism and the sufferings of groups like peasants- areas on which the government might not welcome reporting but which they could scarcely prohibit

Question 20

What were the Negatives of the Censorship Reform?

Answer 20

The Ministry of the Interior could still withdraw any publication deemed as dangerous and fine or close down periodicals

Question 21

What was the Local Government Reform?

Answer 21

The government introduced a measure of self-government at provincial and district levels. Assemblies (zemstva) or councils were to be elected by nobles, town dwellers and peasants. They were elected for 3 years.

The councils had general responsibilities for health, education, relief for the poor, the maintenance of the roads and bridges and local economic affairs. They were empowered to a small tax to pay for these. N. Milyutin was responsible for this reforms publication.

Question 22

What were the Positives of the Local Government Reform?

Answer 22

The results were patchy but there were some good liberal zemstvo men like Prince Lvov who had a real passion for improving local conditions and understood local needs. Nobles and others in the council gained political experience managing their own affairs and many wanted to see this taken through to a national level.

The zemstva brought improvement to the areas in which they operated, building better roads, health facilities and primary schools, and developing areas like transport, street lighting, drainage and water supply. They employed teachers, doctors, agricultural experts and other professional to work in their areas. Many of them became local government members.

Question 23

What were the Negatives of the Local Government Reform?

Answer 23

The overall original plan of the zemstva had been whittled down into the interests of the nobility with no representative government. This reform only reached a handful of the provinces with only 19 to begin with, many nobles would take advantage of this opportunity and would address their own affairs instead of the towns. The zemstva had little control over law and order and couldn’t raise taxes and even had decisions vetoed by local Marshalls.

Question 24

What was the Education Reform?

Answer 24

Alexander recognised that a modern state required a mor educated population. The abolition of serfdom increased the need for education so peasants could run their own private businesses and the establishment of the zemstva provided an opportunity to change the control of education.

The zemstva took responsibility of running many schools from the Church and, with the employment of more professional teachers, the quality of teaching rose. The liberal-minded Alexander Golovin, Minister for Education, introduced reforms for primary, secondary and university level education

Question 25

What were the Positives of the Education Reform?

Answer 25

In the first year the number of students doubled with new primary schools being built and were open to all classes. Higher education tended to foster an independent spirit and critical mind. The curriculum was extended to a wider range of subjects.

Universities regained the right to govern themselves, choose their own professors and design their courses with even liberal thinking professors being appointed. The sons of lower classes and peasants and women could attend education.

Question 26

What were the Negatives of the Education Reform?

Answer 26

Many universities relied on state financial help and were poor and undernourished. They formed mutual-aid groups organising communal kitchens and libraries. University students formed study circles discussing radical ideas and discussing the injustices of the tsarist system. The political authority of the regime was being questioned in these ‘study circles’

Question 27

What is the Judicial Reform?

Answer 27

Russian courts were notorious for their corruption, delay and inefficiency. It was chaotic and favored the rich. Judges would have no legal training and there were no lawyers or juries. The words of a noble was over a peasant and a mans over a women’s.

The reform established a fairer system based on concepts drawn from the West. It was simplified and there was a single system of local, provincial and national courts. Yet, military and church remained separate but you were now innocent till proven guilty in all cases.

Question 28

What were the Positives of the Judicial Reform?

Answer 28

Witnesses had to give oral testimonies and could be challenged with courts being open to the public and press to reduce chance of corruption. Judges were fairer and not tempted by bribes. Juries were selected for more serious trials and were selected from property owner lists. 1860s and 1870s started the training of defence and prosecutor lawyers who became skillful advocators.

The courtroom provided the only place for freedom of speech. Magistrates called Justice of the Peace were to be elected every three years by the zemstva. They protected the small man against local officials.

Question 29

What were the Negatives of the Judicial Reform?

Answer 29

The reforms did not affect everyone in the empire. Ecclesiastical (church) courts and military courts were not affected by the reforms and trial by jury was never introduced to some parts of the Empire.

Where offences were solely concerned peasants, separate village courts were used (volost courts). The courts had judges elected by the peasantry who were often illiterate. Peasants were thus largely outside the main judicial system.

Question 30

What was the Third Section?

Answer 30

Liberal ministers had lost influence in the government and some were even sacked. There was a waste of conservative appointments. Count Peter Shuvalov was made ‘Head of the Third Section’. He brought an air of fear and mistrust.

• He vetted appointments and gave conservative posts,
  -Tightened censorship and closed down periodicals
  -Tightened student control and their organisations
  -Started using military courts more often
  -Increased use of rule by a degree

Question 31

What were the Education Changes in 1866?

Answer 31

A new minister of education was chosen, Count Tolstoy. He believed that revolution originated in schools and universities, and in particular sciences.

-His ministry took greater control of primary schools, reducing the role of the 1964 school boards
-Appointed teachers and adopted new school hours keeping eyes on the teachers views
-Classical subjects like Latin and Greek were favored over the modern subjects like history, science, modern languages
-Entry into universities was restricted unless you had a classical education
-Students engaged in revolutionary activities would be expelled

Question 32

What were the Central Government Changes?

Answer 32

A narrow bullet miss made concrete evidence for Alexander II on why his new reforms of education and censorship should have been reversed. Therefore, he decided to implement some more reactionary policies and prevent these radical groups forming so easily