Alexander II

Question 1

Short summary of Alexander II

Answer 1

‘Tsar Liberator’- However not in reality.

He was a conservative who wanted to preserve what was best of the old system.

Question 2

List the reasons the Tsar was under pressure to reform.

Answer 2

1. Moral Reasons
2. Attempt to maintain his own power
3. Risk of revolt
4. Crimean War
5. Economic reasons

Question 3

Explain the moral reasons the Tsar felt he had to reform.

Answer 3

Writers such as Turgenev
enlightened nobles such as the Party Of St Petersburg Progress,
Tsars brother Grand Duke Konstantin,
Tsar’s Aunt Grand Duchess Elena,
Pavlovna
liberal state of ficials (Milyutin Brothers)
intelligentsia.

Question 4

Explain how the Tsars want to maintain power influenced his reforms

Answer 4

Historian Terence Emmons believed the reforms were intended to maintain Tsarist authority

Question 5

Explain how the risk of revolt influenced the reforms

Answer 5

Tsar worried over 1848 Revolutions throughout Europe and the spike in peasant revolts 1857-59.
He ordered weekly reports on the mood the peasants from December 1957 onwards.
Lindsey Hughes believes this was the main pressure to reform

Question 6

Explain how the Crimean War influenced the reforms

Answer 6

Showed Russia to be backwards.
Bulk of the army were peasant conscripts who served 25 years.
It was obvious a smaller, better trained army was needed but shorter conscription period would mean Serfs going back to village with military training.
David Soon believed this was the main pressure to reform.

Question 7

Explain how the Economic reasons influenced the reforms

Answer 7

Some officials and intellectuals believed free labour was more productive than forced labour. This was the view of historian Adam Smith.
This would lead to more grain production.
Grain could then be exported in return for investment in industry.

Question 8

What reason does Olga Crisp believe to be more significant in preventing economic development in Russia?

Answer 8

Poor transport

Question 9

List the terms of the Edict of Emancipation 1861

Answer 9

1. 1861 Edict applied to privately owned serfs.
2. They were to be freed in 2 years.
3. They would be allocated a piece of land by the Mir.
4. The Mir controlled farming, collecting and paying taxes.
5. From 1863 volosts ran its own law courts, replacing the juris diction of the landlords.
6. Peasants had to pay for their land over 49 years and were not allowed to leave the village until this had been achieved.

Question 10

List the terms of the Edict of Emancipation 1866

Answer 10

1. Applied to state-owned serfs.

2. They tended to receive more land

Question 11

List the two years of the Edict of Emancipation

Answer 11

1861- Privately owned serfs

1866- State-owned serfs

Question 12

List the negative consequences of the Edict of Emancipation

Answer 12

1. Landlords kept the meadows, postures and woodlands (much of this had been common land)
2. Landlords received compensation from the government for the land they did lose.
3. Landowners tended to sell their worst land
4. Some landlords felt they lost their status and were critical of the regime
5. Peasants received less land than previously farmed and of poor quality.
6. Little opportunity to adopt new farming methods
7. In the Black Earth region the allocation of land was below average
8. many peasants had to work as hired labourers to survive
9. Peasants annoyed they had to pay redemption payments for 49 years
10. Overall subsistence farming continued

Question 13

List the positive consequences of the Edict of Emancipation.

Answer 13

1. Some peasants bought land from poorer peasants and hired more to work for them
2. Mir had large powers as responcible for collecting redemption payments, taxes and issued internal passports, the aim of which was to prevent peasants moving around the country
3. Peasants were tied to the Mir

Question 14

Nicholas Milyutin

Answer 14

He was responsible for much of the Edict of Emancipation.
He was dismissed by the Tsar in order to appease the conservative nobility.
This showed the Tsar did not want to damage the ruling class.
He depended on them for his survival.

Question 15

Other than the Edict of Emancipation, list the reforms made by Alexander II

Answer 15

1. Local Government reform
2. Judiciary reform
3. Military reform
4. Education
5. Censorship

Question 16

Local Government reform

Answer 16

Elected Local government were to set up zemstva at district and provincial level.

There was an electoral college system to vote in representatives onto the zemstva but the system meant the nobles dominated, having 40% of seats at district level and over 70% seats in provincial zemstva. Thus noble control was maintained.

Work on self of the zemstva was carried out by permanently employed civil servants, teachers, doctors, lawyers and agricultural experts. They improved public services, e.g. road building and looked after school and public health and in charge of developing transport, drainage, water supply, industry and administer poor relief.

Building of hospitals and school was of lasting benefit.

Question 17

Local Government reform disadvantages

Answer 17

1. Nobles dominated
2. This reform only introduced in 19 provinces and extended to 37 out of 70 provinces by 1914.
3. Zemstva’s powers very limited- no control over state and local taxes plus had problems collecting the small tax they were allowed to levy.
4. Provincial governors could overturn zemstva decisions.
5. Peasants were under-represented
6. Central government worried about power zemstva had over their locality as had a good knowledge of their local area and would use zemstva meetings to discuss political issues.

Question 18

What year were the judiciary reforms?

Answer 18

1864

Question 19

Judiciary reforms 1864

Answer 19

Emancipation meant private property rights needed reviewing and administration of local justice.

New system based on the West- innocent until proven guilty

New system of civil and criminal courts introduced at local and national level

Judges were well paid and could not be removed.

Reporting of cases was unrestricted.

Trial by jury for criminal cases was introduced.

Evidence by witnesses to be given orally.

JPs elected every 3 years.

If offences concerned solely peasants, they were heard in separate volost courts.

Question 20

Overall summary of positive and negative consequences of the Judiciary reforms 1864

Answer 20

Positive consequences:

1. Fairer trails developed
2. JPs courts cost nothing to those appearing (no need for barrister)
3. the courtroom became the one place where there was a genuine freedom of speech

Negative consequences:

1. There were separate courts for peasants
2. Church and military courts were excluded from reforms
3. in the 1870s, revolutionaries could be tried in special courts

Question 21

Military reforms

Answer 21

Army reorganised by Dmitry Milyutin.

Reforms meant conscription for all classes from 21 years old.

Period of conscription reduced from 25 to 15 years.

Punishments were less severe

No longer had military colonies but soldiers housed in barracks.

Army reorganised into 15 military districts

Commanders in each district were given more power. This would make it easier to bring in reserves.

Literacy in the army was improved- there was ass army education programmes.

Officer training was improved and non-nobles could be admitted to military colleges.

Better food and medical supplies were made available/

Question 22

Negative consequences of the military reforms

Answer 22

Nobles and merchants objected to reforms not wanting their songs ti mix with lower classes.

Members of the royal family were still appointed to key positions

Army still relied on peasant conscripts who were uneducated.

Question 23

What years were the Education reforms?

Answer 23

1863- 1864

Question 24

Education reforms 1863-64

Answer 24

Zemstva took over running of many schools from the church.

many primary schools built. 8,000 in 1856 to 23,000 in the 1880s.

Secondary schools opened to all classes. A wider range of subjects were taught too such as maths, science and languages not just Latin and Classics.

More professional teachers.

Universities allowed to govern themselves. Chose their own professors and design own courses. Women were allowed to attend but could not take the degrees.

Sons of peasants were allowed to attend universities- they were so poor however, they. would often organise communal kitchens. Thus students would gather in large groups and would often criticise the regime.

Question 25

What years were the censorship reforms?

Answer 25

1858-1870

Question 26

Censorship reforms 1858-70

Answer 26

Censorship was relaxed in the 1860s. During this time there was a huge growth in published works, hardly surprising due to the increase in literacy but some publications were closed down by the regime. As a result, many took a moderate line in their reports.

Question 27

Reaction to the reforms

Answer 27

1863- Polish Revolt- worried the Tsar

Eldest son and wife died in 1865.

40 days after his wife’s death he married his mistress.

1866- Karakazov attempted to assassinate the Tsar.

He now became less inclined to resist reactionary conservatives who felt his reforms had gone too far.

However, the assassination attempt didn’t mean his reign was split into two halves as in 1870…

• towns and cities had local government reform (Dumas)
• military reforms continued
• 1872, the first women were admitted to Moscow University.

Question 28

In the 1870s who was head of the 3rd section?

Answer 28

Shuvalov

Question 29

Shuvalov and the 3rd section

Answer 29

Shuvalov increased the persecution of ethnic and religious minorities,

vetted appointments to ensure conservatives gained posts,

had stricter censorship and higher control over students.

Question 30

Who worked with Shuvalov

Answer 30

Pahlen (Minister of Justice)

Question 31

Pahlen, Minister of Justice

Answer 31

Pahlen held show trials to deter agitators but the idea backfired.
1877- Trial of 50
1877-78- Trial of 193 in which 153 were acquitted and lighter sentences given to the rest.

The defence lawyers speeches were widely reported and gave publicity to revolutionary ideas.

1878 was the trial of Vera Zasulich who was found not guilt of shooting and wounding Trepov, Governor of St. Petersburg

Question 32

Which revolutionary group appeared in the show trials of 1877 and 1877-78?

Answer 32

Narodniks

Question 33

What was created in 1879?

Answer 33

New post of governor-generals.

They had the power to prosecute in military courts which were not open to reporting and thus government was likely to get the verdict it wanted and they could exile political offenders.

Question 34

Who was Minister of Education?

Answer 34

Tolstoy

Question 35

Tolstoy, Minister of Education

Answer 35

Blamed the growth in student radicalism on reforms.

He reduced the power of the zemstva over schools

Restored the position of church in village schools

In secondary schools, the traditional classical curriculum was to be followed thus removing history and science.

In 1871 University entry was restricted to those from traditional high schools.

1873, laws banned students from forming extra- curricular organisations.

Tolstoy vetoed any University appointment.

Question 36

1877-78 Russo-Turkish War

Answer 36

Russia won but was forced by GB and AH to hand back gains.

Question 37

What was the state trying to promote economically?

Answer 37

Industrial growth

Question 38

Who was Minister of Finance?

Answer 38

Reutern 1862-78

Question 39

Reutern, Minister of Finance

Positive changes

Answer 39

1. He made public, both government revenue and expenses and introduced the auditing off accounts of government departments. He hoped this openness would encourage foreign investors.
2. 1860 The State bank was set up. Later Municipal banks and a Saving bank. The idea of all of these was to extend credit facilities.
3. Return abolished tax farming. (1863, he abolished tax farming on vodka, giving the state more control over vodka revenues)
4. He encouraged investment in railways by guaranteeing annual dividends to foreign investors, whether a line was profitable or not.
5. He cut back on spending on the military plus in other areas.
6. Cut back on import duties to encourage trade.
7. Encouraged foreign expertise- obey brothers invested I Baku in 1873 which led to oil refineries being set up. John Hughes helped to build iron and steel works in the Donbass.

Question 40

Return, Minister of Finance

Negative changes

Answer 40

1. 1/3rd of all government expenditure went on repaying debts
2. 66% go government revenue came from indirect taxation, keeping the peasants poor.
3. 1879-80= Recession in industry. Reutern did very little for the agricultural sector.

Question 41

Describe the social impact on the nobility after the reforms

Answer 41

Personal landholdings declined considerably after emancipation. many used the compensation to pay off debts and abandoned farming.

1880, nearly 1/5th of university professors came from hereditary nobles. Others went into business or were employed in commerce, transport or industry.

Question 42

Describe the social impact on the middle class after the reforms

Answer 42

Began to grow with an increase in educational opportunities.

Question 43

Describe the social impact on the urban working class after the reforms

Answer 43

GROWING SLOWLY.

1867- Putilov bought the ironworks in St Petersburg to develop it as a railway factor. It was soon producing 25% of all State orders for locomotives, wagons and rails.

Question 44

Describe the social impact on the peasants after the reforms

Answer 44

1879-80= famine in countryside.

Te peasant class, just like the land elite, was divided up, with wealthy peasants (Kulaks) at the top and at the bottom the poorer peasants struggling to survive.

many of the poorer peasants became landless labourers

Despite improvements in health, many poorer peasants were turned down for military services.

Life expectancy for peasants was well below 30 years.

Question 45

Describe the social impact on political groups after the reforms

Answer 45

Following the Populist tradition, in 1874 and again in 1876, the Narodniks organised an exodus to the peasants.

In 1877, the group, Land and Liberty was set up. This was a mixture of moderates and extremists. In 1879 this group spilt up into two groups, ‘Black Repartition’ and ‘People’s Will’.

Question 46

Black Repartition

Answer 46

Wanted a fairer partition of land.

Plekhanov was a member of this group.

1880-81, many of this group were arrested and it ceased to exist.

Question 47

People’s Will

Answer 47

Advocated violence and assassination.

They were responsible for the assassinations of many Russian officials.

In 1879, the People’s Will declared that the Tsar had to be removed.

1879-80= there were several attempts on Alexander II’s life which made him realise the need for reform.

1881- Alexander II was assassinated by the People’s Will

Question 48

What year was Alexander II assassinated?

Answer 48

1881

Question 49

1880

Answer 49

Tsar Alexander II celebrated 25 years on the throne- created by cheering crowds.

However, attempts on his life made him realise that greater reform was needed.

He appointed Loris Melikov to be Minster of the Interior

Question 50

Loris Melikov, Minister of the Interior

Answer 50

1. released political prisoners
2. Relaxed censorship
3. Removed the salt tax
4. Lifted restrictions on zemstva
5. 3rd Section abolished- But Okhrana was set up in its place which was equally as aggressive

Question 51

Loris Melikov’s constitution

Answer 51

The report he recommended elected representatives of the zemstva (these would be nobles) and of the town Dumas to form part of a consultative body to help drafting decrees.

Despite being known as a constitution, this was by no means what this was.

Question 52

1881

Answer 52

13th march, the Tsar called a meeting of the Council of Ministers to discuss this report.

He was killed on the same day by the People’s Will.