AICP Flashcards
Maximum decibel for public housing for HUD
75
1887 – Mugler v Kansas:
14th Amend/Due Process case which ruled that KS could prohibit sale of alcohol based on Police Powers
Though Mugler has an abstract right to make liquor for his own use, such a right could be conditioned on its effect on others. Here the state legislature may exercise its police powers.
Andres Duany
1982 New Urbanism - Seaside, Andres Duany
1912 – Eubank v City of Richmond:
A ZO establishing building setback lines was held unconstitutional and not a valid use of the PP; violates the due process of law and is therefore unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment.
1995 – Babbitt v Sweet Home Chap. of Communities for a Great OR:
Applied the Endangered Species Act to land development; Sec of Interior’s definition of harm is valid.
Hoover (Boulder) Dam, 1936
Apportioned the waters of the Colorado River among AZ, CA, CO, NV, NM, UT, WY. Significant environmental impact
Extraterritorial Jurisdiction (ETJ)
Buffer around a city for orderly planning.
City development regulations apply
1st off-street parking regulations
Columbus, OH in 1923
Federal Highway Act of 1973
Created Metropolitan Planning Organizations; Established Transportation System Management
1987 – Nollan v California Coastal Commission:
Created the essential nexus takings test for conditioning development approvals on dedications & exactions. A relationship must exist between what a property owner wants (in this case, a building permit to add a second story) and what the local government wants (public access to beach). No relationship here.
1992 – Lucas v South Carolina Coastal Council:
Defined categorical regulatory taking. Compensation must be paid when all economically beneficial uses of land are taken unless uses are disallowed by title or by state law principles of nuisance.
Impact Analysis
Environmental, Historic, Transportation, Fiscal
1971 – Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v Volpe:
Established hard look doctrine for environmental impact review. Section 4(f) DOT Act of 1966 – park use ok if no “feasible and prudent” alternative and “all possible planning to minimize harm”.
The Secretary of Transportation can only approve use of federal funds for construction of a highway in a public park (a) if no feasible and prudent alternative exists, and (b) after undertaking all possible planning to minimize harm.
Federal-Aid Highway Acts, 1956 and 1962
Established the Interstate System of Defense Highways. Trip Generation, Trip Distribution, Modal Split & Supply Analysis. Traffic Assignment Modeling
Appalachian Regional Commission, 1963
Federal, state and local government partnership initially formed in 1963 to create economic development in Appalachia § 420 counties, 13 states, 8 independent cities
National Transportation Programs/Acts
FHWA, FTA, FRA, FAA, ACOE § National Highway System § TEA Acts and MAP-21
1976 – Home Builders v. City of Livermore:
Growth policy that timed phasing of future residential growth until performance standards are met; upheld the use of a moratorium.
Robert Lang
He authored over 150 academic and professional publications on a wide range of topics and developed many new urban planning concepts such as “boomburbs,” “edgeless cities,” and “megapolitan areas.
1960 Bid Rent Theory - William Alonso
It states that different land users will compete with one another for land close to the city centre. This is based upon the idea that retail establishments wish to maximize their profitability, so they are much more willing to pay more for land close to the CBD and less for land further away from this area. This theory is based upon the reasoning that the more accessible an area (i.e., the greater the concentration of customers), the more profitable.
Ratio/Step-down Method:
Less technically complicated, good for smaller area projections. The farther out the projection, the more the margin of error.
1971 – Calvert Cliffs’ Coordinating Committee v Atomic Energy Commission:
Made National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requirements judicially enforceable.
Vieux Carré Commission
New Orleans - Vieux Carré Commission in 1937 to maintain the French Quarter
1972 – Sierra Club v Morton:
Opened up environmental citizen suits to discipline the resource agencies.
1973 – Fasano v Board of Commissioners of Washington Co., Oregon:
Required zoning to be consistent with comp plans, and recognized that rezonings may be judicial rather than legislative. Central issue was spot zoning, which must meet the two measures to be deemed valid: 1st, there must be a public need for the change in question; 2nd, the need must be best served by changing the zoning of the particular parcel in question as compared with other available property.
Charrettes:
short, intense collaborative process that is usually used to design projects, plan communities, and/or build consensus; can vary in makeup (professionals/citizens) depending on the goal §
1976 – Hills v Dorothy Gautreaux:
The Chicago Housing Authority and HUD had to spread out concentration of public housing (scattered site housing), including into white suburbs that were not necessarily within Chicago. Argued under the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Dillon’s Rule vs. Home Rule
§ 39 states use Dillon’s Rule in whole or in part § Dillon’s Rule (Iowa judge, 1868 ruling) narrowly defines the power of local governments. The first part of Dillon’s Rule states that local governments have only three types of powers: § those granted in express words, § those necessarily or fairly implied in or incident to the powers expressly granted, and § those essential to the declared objects and purposes of the corporation, not simply convenient, but indispensable. § The second part of Dillon’s Rule states that if there is any reasonable doubt whether a power has been conferred on a local government, then the power has NOT been conferred. § Home Rule: Local governments have all functions not prohibited/preempted by State or Federal law
National Environmental Programs
§ EPA § NEPA (1969) § Clean Air Act (1970) § Clean Water Act (1972)
Councils of Government
§ Voluntary association of local governments § Established by contract
Neighborhood Unit Concept
(Clarence Perry), Inspired by Garden Cities. Promoted neighborhood community and recreation centers. Outlined in The Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs and centered around the following design guidelines:1. The school should be in the center of the neighborhood so each child did not walk more than ¼ mile and did not have to cross major roadways. The neighborhood should support between 5,000 and 9,000 residents and the school should have a large play area that the entire community could use.2. Major arterial roads would be located along the perimeter to eliminate through traffic. This would prevent the neighborhood from being split by hard to cross roads.3. Internal streets would be curvilinear for aesthetic and safety concerns. They would discourage through-traffic and be distinguished from arterial streets.4. Local shopping would be placed along the neighborhood’s perimeter or at the main entrance so non-local traffic would not intrude in the neighborhood.5. At least 10% of land area would be dedicated to parks and open space so there would be more opportunities for play and community socialization.
ISTEA
(ICE TEA) - Intermodal surface transprotation efficiency act of 1991. First multimodal act. Required that MPOs and DOTs create 3 year TIPs that establish priorities among local projects. By tying projects to funding types, TIPs become constrained to reduce frivolous spending of federal funds. Requires long range plan for 20 years. Allocated $ to improvements to reduce congestion through increased efficiency and alternatives
1982 – Loretto v Teleprompter Manhattan CATV Corporation
: Court held that any physical occupation is a taking, no matter how de minimus (landlords had been required under state law to allow cable company to install permanent cable TV facilities on their property).
1981 – Metromedia, Inc v City of San Diego
: Ordinance that substantially restricted onsite and off-site billboards was ruled unconstitutional under 1st amendment.
Delphi Method
…another small group vUsed to develop a consensus between two or more groups that are in conflict; the views of each group are presented in successive rounds of argument and counterargument, with the rounds gradually working towards a consensus vRecognizes the value of expert opinion, experience and intuition and allows using the limited information available in these forms, when full scientific knowledge is lacking. vUses a panel of carefully selected experts who answer a series of questionnaires. vExperts are encouraged to revise their earlier answers in light of the replies of other members of the group. vIt is believed that during this process the range of the answers will decrease and the group will converge towards the “correct” answer. vThe following key characteristics of the Delphi method help participants focus on the issues at hand and separate Delphi from other methodologies: § Structuring of information flow § Regular feedback § Anonymity of the participants
State and Local Government Roles for Housing
• Statewide Building Codes and Consumer Protection Agencies • State Housing Finance Agencies • Local Housing Authorities • Local Regulatory Environment
Code of Conduct Fundamental responsibilities
•Consider the public interest when making decisions and provide opportunities for participation •Consider the long-term impacts of decisions •Do not mislead, conceal the truth, or plagiarize •Do not discriminate •Avoid conflicts of interest, either real or perceived
Revenue Bond
•Revenue Bonds: commonly used for projects that generate revenue, these bonds are paid back through the money generated from the new service or project built using the funds from the bond. They are not supported by the full taxing power of the jurisdiction so these bonds do not need to be approved by the voters.
8 roles of strategic planning
1) Community/org analysis. 2) Objectives 3) SWOT analysis 4) Stakeholder involvement 5) Strategy development/evaluation 6) Role definition 7) Funding Policy 8) Performance evaluation
How far are ppl willing to walk?
1/4 to 1/2 mile
USGS map scale
1:24,000 scale
Also known as 7.5-minute quadrangles, these maps are the most well-known USGS maps
The USGS produced over 55,000 of these maps between 1947 and 1992 to cover the 48 contiguous states
The USGS transitioned from hand-drawn maps to computer-generated US Topos in 2009
US Topos include shaded relief, orthoimagery, and data on transportation, elevation, and more
Other scales
1:100,000 scale: 1:24,000 scale
Also known as 7.5-minute quadrangles, these maps are the most well-known USGS maps
The USGS produced over 55,000 of these maps between 1947 and 1992 to cover the 48 contiguous states
The USGS transitioned from hand-drawn maps to computer-generated US Topos in 2009
US Topos include shaded relief, orthoimagery, and data on transportation, elevation, and more
Other scales
1:100,000 scale: Also known as 100K Topo, these maps provide a broad overview of a landscape
1:62,500 scale: Also known as 15-minute mapsAlso known as 100K Topo, these maps provide a broad overview of a landscape
1:62,500 scale: Also known as 15-minute maps
Development of DC
1791 Pierre L’Enfant (hired by Washington), designed as orthogonal, gridded street network with diagonal avenues connecting key civic buildings and spaces visually. East-west buildings had letters, N/S had numbers. Plan would be modified by McMillan in 1901 to include Mall
McMillan Plan
1902 The Senate Park Commission wrote the McMillan Plan, a landmark comprehensive planning document, to revive and update the L’Enfant Plan for Washington, D.C. The McMillan Plan focused on the city’s parks and monuments. It redesigned the National Mall and determined the locations of the Lincoln Memorial, Ulysses S. Grant Memorial, Union Station, and U.S. Department of Agriculture Building, among other changes. The McMillan Plan is still the basis of most of Washington, D.C.’s planning, and helped boost the career of Daniel Burnham, who worked on the plan. It could be considered the first real expression in the United States of the City Beautiful movement, which emphasized grandeur and beautification in planning.
Charles Winslow
1920s - defined public health as science and art of preventing disease, organizing community efforts for sanitation, controlling infections, and educating public, and developing social machinery to ensure individual in the community a standard of living.
Sherry Arnstein
1969 book- “A Ladder of Citizen Participation” about the hierarchy of public involvement. Arnstein’s work influenced how planners and communities go about engaging the public in the planning and decision-making process, provided the theoretical framework for advocacy planning, and organized planners’ understanding of meaning public participation as a way for citizens to be equal partners in shaping programs and plans. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 2005.
Community Development Block Grant Program (CDBG)
1974–allows federal funds to be used to improve blighted areas and created Section 8 program for rent subsidies. Annual entitlement grant and must be used for either:1) benefit low/moderate income hosueholds2) prevent blight or slums3) address communities needs of urgency due to serious or immediate threats
Urban Development Action Grant Program (UDAG)
1977 - created through amendments to 1974 Housing Act to encourage public-private partnerships on redevelopment areas. Provided air to distressed cities by using federal funds to spark private investment on development projects. Cut funding for Section 701 comp planning program.
Edge City
1985 on, when a concentration of businesses, shopping and entertainment forms outside the traditional urban area in what had been considered the suburban or rural area of the city, making it more self-contained. Fairfax VA is an example. 5 Rules:1) must have more than 5 million sq. f.t of offices for 20-50,000 workers2) Must have retail space exceeding 600,000 sq. ft.3) More jobs than bedrooms4) must be perceived as one place by the population5) should be nothing like a city 30 years prior
HOME Program
1990 - authorized by the National Affordable Housing Act to increase home ownership and affordable housing opportunities and provided funds for housing rehabilitation. Largest federal block grant to creating affordable housing for low income households. $ goes to site improvements, demolition, relocation and acquisition. Jurisdictions that apply for home funds must provide a 25% match of federal funds they receive. Must set asside15% of allocation for housing to be owned or developed by community housing devepment orgs.
HOPE VI
1992 - Provided federal funds to redevelop severely distressed public housing. intended to address physical improvements, improve management and provide services.
1984 – Members of City Council v Taxpayers of Vincent:
1st amendment case which allowed the City Council to exert control over posting of election signs on public telephone poles.
1980 – Central Hudson v Public Service Commission:
1st Amendment case which overruled the NY State Public Service Commission’s total ban on an electric utility’s advertisements to increase electric usage.
Federal Aid Highway Act of 1916
1st federal highway funding legislation, passed to expand road network. Farmers were asking because roads were in terrible condition. After this, every state had a DOT to administer funds
FAST act (2015)
1st federal law funding for surface transportation planning and construction. Converted ISTEA into block grants, which are more flexible funding used to preserve and improve conditions and performance on any highway, bridge, tunnel, or multimodal infrastructure
1st US City with a subway
1st US city with a subway was Boston in 1897
Speed hump
3-4 in tall elevated areas along road to force drivers to slow
EIS
4 sections: 1) Introduction with a statement of purpose and need of the proposed action. 2) Description of Affected Environment. 3) Range of Alternatives to the proposedaction. Alternatives are the “heart” of the EIS. 4) Analysis of environmental impacts of the each possible alternative. The EIS must attress the probably impact of the project, adverse environmental effects that can’t be avoided, alternatives to the proposed action, relationship between local short term uses of the environment and maintenance and enhancement of long term productivity of the land, and irreversible and irretrievable committments of resources that would be involved in action
Ratios
43,560 square feet in 1 acre v 5,280 linear feet in 1 mile v 2.47 acres in 1 hectacre v 640 acres in 1 square mile
1 Acre
43650 sq ft
1 Mile
5280 ft
1 acre
640 sq. miles
Brownfield vs grayfield
A “brownfield” refers to previously developed land that is currently unused and may be contaminated with hazardous substances, while a “greyfield” is a previously developed area that is underutilized or obsolete, but generally not considered environmentally contaminated, often including vacant commercial spaces like old shopping centers or office buildings; essentially, a brownfield has environmental concerns while a greyfield is more focused on functional obsolescence.
Capital Budget
A Capital Budget is slightly more complex in that it includes long-term capital expenditures such as major infrastructure projects or new buildings. Capital budgets make up the first year of fiscal programming for a Capital Improvements Program (CIP) which is typically a five to ten year plan of the capital needs of a jurisdiction. CIPs set the timelines and funding sources for major infrastructure projects based on the project long-term demand for physical improvements. An important distinction between a capital budget and capital improvement plan is that a capital improvement plan typically has no legal standing whereas a one-year capital budget can become part of a jurisdictions legally adopted annual operating budget
JANE JACOBS
A journalist and author rather than an academic, Jacobs was a master communicator who perhaps did more to popularize critical thinking about cities than any other individual. Her 1961 bestseller The Death and Life of Great American Cities sent shockwaves through the planning and architecture establishment by dismissing the grand plans of “the Radiant Garden City Beautiful†and pointing the way toward more human-centered urban design and bottom-up decision-making.Death and Life was a love letter to many of the things planners and other bureaucrats had been trying to eradicate with urban renewal: crowded neighborhoods, chaotic streets, jarring mixtures of people and land uses. Jacobs’s most high-profile enemy was Robert Moses, whose career she helped end with her fierce opposition to the demolition of Penn Station (at which she failed) and the Lower Manhattan Expressway (at which she was successful).Instead of freeways and superblocks, Jacobs advocated for short blocks and varied buildings, with small businesses at ground level and apartments above, much like the urban fabric of Manhattan’s West Village, where she lived. Jacobs was able to speak about cities in emotional terms, referencing people as often as she did structures and spaces. The street was a “ballet†in which everyone had their role—the butcher who kept your spare keys, the stay-at-home mom keeping an eye on the children playing in the street.Jacobs’s writing and advocacy were so compelling that they helped spur an anti-freeway, anti-urban-renewal revolt across the country, which largely ended sweeping Modernist planning and vastly expanded community control over land-use decisions (a mixed blessing).While on most counts she has been lauded as a visionary, more recent assessments find points of criticism. Jacobs’s view of her New York neighborhood was, indeed, idyllic, largely glossing over problems like housing affordability and segregation. She failed to grasp how community control over land use could exacerbate those problems. Contemporary urbanists such as Sharon Zukin have drawn a connection between Jacobs’s sensibility and that of the post-urban-crisis gentrifier.But her legacy is still being plumbed for wisdom. Jacobs—who moved to Toronto in 1968 and remained in that city until her death—anticipated the rise of right-wing populism due to growing economic inequality and the erosion of civic institutions in her final book, Dark Age Ahead.
Line Item Budgets vs Performance Budgets
A line-item budget simply lists individual expense categories like salaries, rent, and office supplies, detailing how each dollar will be spent, while a performance budget focuses on the results achieved with that spending, measuring outcomes like customer satisfaction or reduced costs, essentially showing what each dollar will accomplish rather than just where it goes; making performance budgets more focused on achieving organizational goals and less on just managing expenses.
Key Differences:
Focus:
Line-item budgets focus on the specific cost of each expense category, while performance budgets focus on the results or outcomes achieved with those expenditures.
Information Provided:
A line-item budget provides a detailed breakdown of expenses, but lacks information on the effectiveness of those expenditures in achieving organizational goals. A performance budget includes performance indicators to measure the impact of spending on desired outcomes.
Evaluation:
With a line-item budget, evaluation is primarily based on whether spending stays within the allocated budget for each category. Performance budgets allow for evaluation based on how well the organization is achieving its goals relative to the allocated funds.
Location Quotient
A location quotient (LQ) is an analytical statistic that measures a region’s industrial specialization relative to a larger geographic unit (usually the nation). An LQ is computed as an industry’s share of a regional total for some economic statistic (earnings, GDP by metropolitan area, employment, etc.) divided by the industry’s share of the national total for the same statistic. For example, an LQ of 1.0 in mining means that the region and the nation are equally specialized in mining; while an LQ of 1.8 means that the region has a higher concentration in mining than the nation.
Facilitation
a method for which a neutral party, with no stake in the outcome of a problem, helps conflicting groups come to a consensus. A professional facilitator is often hired to facilitate meetings and discussions, especially when the given problems are particularly complex
Task Force
A planning task force is a group of professional planning staff, higher management, consultants, and key employees that is formed when an organization requires addressing special circumstances1. It is preferable and more efficient than maintaining a different planning staff or department. Task forces are important to the planning process because they provide a forum for a diversity of opinion to be heard and considered
Father of Modern Housing Code
According to available information, Lawrence Veiller is widely considered the “Father of the Modern Housing Code” due to his significant contributions and writings on tenement housing reform, advocating for improved housing standards and regulations.
Key points about Lawrence Veiller:
Focus on Tenement Housing:
He was a prominent advocate for reform regarding the poor living conditions in tenement houses, which led to the development of modern housing codes.
Extensive Writings:
Veiller authored several books and publications on tenement housing issues, which heavily influenced housing regulations.
Impact on City Planning:
His work significantly impacted the field of city planning by pushing for better housing standards within urban environments.
APA creation
ACIP and ASPO joined to for the APA in 1978
JANE ADDAMS
Addams, along with Ellen Gates Starr, founded Chicago’s Hull House, a woman-run “settlement house†designed to improve the lives of immigrants and the poor in Chicago’s Near West Side. A cross between a community college, rec center, and clinic, Hull House offered shelter for victims of domestic violence and language classes for recently arrived immigrants. It also included Chicago’s first public playground, in accordance with Addams’s belief that children’s play made for happier, healthier adults.Addams was a charter member of the American Sociological Association and closely collaborated with the Chicago School of Sociology. She and her staff collected detailed sociological data about their neighborhood, which they used to advocate for women’s rights and reforms on immigration and child labor.Today she is considered a founder of the field of social work. In her 1907 essay “Utilization of Women in City Government,†Addams wrote that the mandate of a modern city government primarily encompasses “civic housekeeping,†including issues like sanitation, social welfare, education, and combating vice. Because these urban problems correspond to traditional women’s roles, a more humanitarian city must include women leaders, she argued.In her later years, she became a prominent pacifist, founding the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, for which she won the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize, becoming the first American woman to do so.
FHWA standards on roads
after WW2, determined what was a “good” road- because prioritize free flowing traffic, not because they were effective. Too wide
Tools in Development
Ag Preservation Zoning § Density Bonuses § Conservation Subdivision § Developer Agreements § Landowner Covenants § Easements (access, preservation, equity) § Transfer of Development Rights (TDR)
Agins v Tiberon (1980)
Agins v. City of Tiburon, 447 U.S. 255 (1980), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the test for determining whether a zoning ordinance or governmental regulation will be considered a taking is whether such action “substantially advances†a legitimate state interest.The Court subsequently overruled this decision twenty-five years later in Lingle v. Chevron U.S.A. Inc., 554 U.S. 528 (2005).BackgroundCalifornia state law required the city to prepare a general plan governing both land use and the development of open space land.After Dr and Ms Agins acquired 5 acres (20,000 m2) of unimproved property zoned one house per acre, the city announced that it intended to acquire it, and issued bonds to finance the taking. It filed an eminent domain action, but on the eve of trial abandoned it. Instead, it amended the zoning ordinance placing the subject land in a zone that permitted construction of one to five homes, the exact number being discretionary with the city. The owners contended that the applying for permit(s) to construct seriatim of one to five home would be economically infeasible and that the city intended to convert their land into open space by preventing its development. They sued seeking just compensation for a regulatory taking.The owners alleged that their land had greater value than other land in California because of its spectacular views of San Francisco Bay, and the rezoning prevented economically feasible development, thereby completely destroying its value, and thus effecting its taking without just compensation in violation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments.The California Supreme Court refused to recognize the existence of a regulatory taking cause of action, and held that the only remedy available to the owner would be a petition for a writ of mandate seeking to invalidate the regulation on grounds of denial of substantive due process.Court’s decisionThe question in this case was whether the ordinances took Agins’ property without just compensation.The complaint framed the question as to whether a state court’s decision to deny compensation for regulatory takings was constitutional, and whether a zoning ordinance that de facto forbade all development of their land effected a taking under the 5th and 14th Amendments. However, as noted, because the owners had not yet applied for a permit for development, the court found that the issue of whether an as-applied taking occurred, was not yet ripe for decision. Therefore, the only issue left was whether this zoning ordinance constituted a taking on its face.The Court held that a general zoning law can be a taking if the ordinance does not substantially advance a legitimate state interest or denies an owner economically viable use of his land. In spite of its finding of lack of ripeness, the U. S. Supreme Court affirmed the California Supreme Court’s holding that the zoning ordinances did not on their face effect an uncompensated taking.
Agricultural Lands Preservation
Agricultural land preservation is the process of protecting land for farming and agriculture. This can be done through zoning, conservation easements, and other programs.
1987 – First English Evangelical Church of Glendale v Co of Los Angeles:
Allowed damages (as opposed to invalidation) as a remedy for regulatory taking. Just compensation clause of the 5th Amendment requires compensation for temporary takings which occur as a result of regulations that are ultimately invalidated.
Annexation
Allows for natural municipal growth § Can be cooperative or hostile
Tennessee Valley Authority
America’s experiment in river basin planning. The Tennessee Valley Authority provides electricity for 153 local power companies serving 10 million people in Tennessee and parts of six surrounding states, as well as directly to 58 large industrial customers and federal installations. We don’t get taxpayer funding; rather, our revenues come from sales of electricity. TVA also provides flood control, navigation, and land management for the Tennessee River system and assists local power companies and regional governments with their economic development efforts. Congress initiated
Lease-purchase
An agreement that agencies and departments can enter that allows them to “rent-to-own” major capital improvements typically built by a private entity, avoiding the need to borrow money to finance said improvement
Green infrastructure
an approach from 1990s for water management to protect, restore, and mimic natural water cycle instead constructing taller leevees. Suggests natural floodplains to capture water.
Step-Down/Ratio
An area’s population is proportionally derived from projections of a larger region to which the area belongs.
EIS requirements
An EIS typically has four sections: (1) Introduction includes a statement of the Purpose and Need of the Proposed Action; (2) Description of the Affected Environment; (3) Range of Alternatives to the proposed action. Alternatives are considered the “heart” of the EIS; and, (4) Analysis of the environmental impacts of each of the possible alternatives. The EIS must address the probable impact of the project, any adverse environmental effects that can’t be avoided, alternatives to the proposed action, the relationship between local short-term uses of the environment and the maintenance and enhancement of long term productivity of the land; and any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources that would be involved in the proposed action.
Operating Budget
An Operating Budget is the most straight forward type of budget and includes all of the things needed to keep a business or government organization running. This includes everyday expenditures such as personnel salaries, supplies, equipment, software/ licenses, and maintenance of office space.
Nominal Group Technique
another variation of brainstorming, this method is used to identify a problem and generate solutions for any sized group. The process works by first presenting a problem or a question to the group and then every member of the group answers the question or suggests solutions to the problem individually. With all of the suggested solutions listed, members of the group then rank the solutions and discuss their priority. After this discussion, the solution with the highest ranking, or priority, is selected.
Berman v. Parker
Approval of urban renewal project planned as a whole, even though some properties taken were not blighted
User Fees
are fees assessed on users of public facilities for their use of such facilities, such as utility payments.
Equity Planning
As a result of advocacy planning shortcomings, Norman Krumholz adopted Equity Planning in the 1970s. Equity planning made low-income needs the ultimate priority and shifted the goals of a planner to redistributing power, resources, or participation away from the elite and towards the working class or low-income citizens. Plans are evaluated on improvements to quality of life factors, as opposed to the delivery of services. Saul Alinsky, regarded as the Father of Community Organizing, is best known for his book “Rules for Radicals.” His main focus was improving living conditions in poor communities. Alan Altshuler also supported the notion that planners could not be objective and to be most effective, must be involved in the politics of planning.
Charles Abrams
As an international housing consultant, Charles Abrams had a major impact on housing policy after World War II. He was a longtime adviser to the United Nations and, in the 1950s, he chaired the New York State Commission Against Discrimination. In the mid-1960s, he headed a task force that recommended consolidating New York’s housing activities, a proposal that led to the creation of the New York City Housing and Development Administration. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1993.
Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr
As the designer of iconic public parks and some of America’s earliest suburbs, Olmsted became known as the founding father of landscape architecture. In fact, the polymathic Olmsted helped coin the term.Born in Hartford, Connecticut, Olmsted farmed and worked in journalism before shifting to landscape design. The experienced architect Calvert Vaux invited him to jointly enter the competition to design Manhattan’s Central Park, and they won, with a plan that combined elements of the English ramble with more formal, geometric French landscaping. Olmsted was committed to providing high-quality, truly public spaces for the enjoyment of all—a principle not widely held at the time.After spending two years during the Civil War as head of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, a relief agency, Olmsted reunited with his collaborator Vaux. From the mid-1860s, Olmsted & Vaux would design Prospect Park in Brooklyn, Chicago’s Riverside parks, and the park system for Buffalo, New York. The designers dissolved their partnership in 1872, and Olmsted went on to work on Boston’s Emerald Necklace, Montreal’s Mount Royal Park, and the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair, along with numerous other parks, parkways, and university campuses. (After his death, Olmsted’s sons John Charles Olmsted and Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. continued in the family business, designing many public spaces, including Atlanta’s Piedmont Park.)Olmsted’s residential developments were also influential, emphasizing curving streets that flowed with the local topography. In early suburbs like Riverside, Illinois, and Cadwalader Heights in Trenton, New Jersey, Olmsted pioneered street layouts and design elements, such as street setbacks and gaps between houses, that were widely copied in future zoning laws, helping to establish the visual character of American suburbs.
Level of Service
assigns a grade (a to F) to road. C is stable, F is over capacity
Sidewalk dimensions
at least 4 ft wide, throuhg 5 ft is ADA. Multipurpose is 10 ft. Safest are separated from traffic.
Camillo Sittee
Austrian artist and City Planner, Sitte was one of the first urban writers to consciously emphasize the value of irregularity in the urban form. He challenged, among other things, a growing tendency toward rigid symmetry in contemporary urban design, including the isolated placement of churches and monuments in large, open plots.
FREDERICK BAIR JR
Author of The Text of a Model Zoning Ordinance. He also refined the land-use intensity system, which he first adapted to Norfolk, Virginia. Besides writing three editions of Model Zoning, he wrote commentaries for Land Use Law & Zoning Digest, was a founder of the Florida Planning and Zoning Association (1950), and practiced professionally, first with the Florida Development Commission and then as an independent consultant at his own firm, Bair & Abernathy.
George Perkins Marsh
Authored “Man and Nature” in 1864. recognized as first conservationist
Housing and Community Development Act of 1974
authorized the Urban Homesteading Demonstration - use the government’s existing housing stock to increase homeownership for families that would otherwise be unable to improve their housing. May include properties acquired through tax foreclosures, purchase, donations or other methods
Residence time
average amount of time for a molecule of greenhouse gas to be removed from atmosphere. CO2 has average of 100 years. Methane has 12 years, N20 (nitrous oxide) from agriculture and wastewater treatement is 100 years. CFCs depend on the type.
AADT
Average Annual Daily Traffic - amount of traffic on a roadway in a 24 hr period, average over one year
Density
average number of housing units per square mile
DESIGN OF CITIES (BACON)
Bacon identifies eight elements of ‘Involvement’ in Architecture and Urban Design. To identify these elements, Bacon utilizes Francesco Guardi’s painting Architectural Capriccio. Describing these elements as functions of design, he argues the urban designer should be aware of these elements and use them as tools when developing a ‘design idea’ of what the city or place ought to look like.[2]Meeting the sky – building elements to create skylines and identity.Meeting the ground – to give a quality of stability and definition.Points in space – which interplay to create tension and dynamic spatial harmony.Recession planes – framing and creating drama, scale and position for the viewer.Design in depth – creating perspective and a sense of movement within space.Ascent and descent – levels producing anticipation and pleasure.Convexity and concavity – the interplay of positive and negative forms to shape volume.Relationship to people – human-scale design to connect and involve.
MODERN HOUSING
BAUER - Published in 1934, Bauer’s Modern Housing has been widely acknowledged as one of the most important books on housing of the twentieth century, laying out the recent developments in European modernist housing for an American audience. Bauer would become one of the leading “housers†in the United States, lucidly and passionately arguing for the provision of high-quality planned public housing between the 1930s and 1960s.
T.J. Kent
Bay Area Planner. one of the founders of what is now Greenbelt Alliance, a Bay Area non-profit citizens’ regional planning and conservation organization, and helped organized the Association of Bay Area Governments (ABAG) in 1961. He later catalyzed a campaign to establish a limited function regional government in the Bay Area. However his emphasis gradually moved to preservation of greenbelt.
Inter city transit
begins and ends in different urban (metro) areas. Most common used to be rail, but as rail turned mostly for freight it switched to air
Infill/Redevelopment
Billed as an alternative to urban sprawl, infill development encourages the development of underused or vacant land in existing urban areas to increase density and place new development near existing resources and infrastructure.
1909 – Welch v Swasey:
Boston can impose different height limits on buildings in different districts.
Thomas Adams
British-born planner Thomas Adams supervised work on the 1929 Regional Plan of New York and Environs. Adams was a prolific designer of low-density residential developments that were commonly referred to as “garden suburbs.” Upon returning to Great Britain, he served as one of the early presidents of the Institute of Landscape Architects, which became the Landscape Institute. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.
Downtown planning
Business improvement district (BID/TIF) • Traffic circulation • Mixed use – Density Issues • Wayfinding signage • Greening the urban area • Events / Tourism
REPORT ON MANUFACTURERS
By: Alexander Hamilton, 1791Hamilton discusses the importance of protective tariffs for the manufacturing industry to support industrial development.
Tomorrow: a peaceful path to real reform
By: Ebenezer Howard, 1898This book initiated the Garden City movement. Howard’s vision was a place with the benefits of a town (opportunity, amusement and high wages) and the country (beauty, fresh air and low rents). His “Three Magnets” concept addressed the question “Where will the people go?”: town, country, or towncountry.
Carrying out the City Plan (1914)
By: Flavel Shurtleff, 1914.This book was the first major textbook on city planning. The textbook focused on design of municipal improvements like parks, playgrounds, public squares, parkways, streets, and the placement public buildings.
Principles of Scientific Management
By: Frederick Winslow Taylor, 1911Taylor’s publication outlined the ideas of the Efficiency Movement of the early 20th century, where leaders strived to reduce waste and implement best practices for mechanical, economic, and social improvement. His work heavily influenced today’s field of industrial engineering.
American System (1818)
By: Henry Clay, 1818Clay’s “American System” involved a tariff toprotect/promote American industry; a national bank to support commerce; and federal subsidies for roads, canals, and internal improvements required to encourage the development of the national economy.
The Making of Urban America (1965)
By: John Reps, 1965John Reps discusses European influence on earlycommunities and presents case studies of American cities and the unique factors impacting their development.
Local Planning Administration (1941)
By: Ladislas Segoe, 1941This book was the first in the Green Book Series produced by the International City/County Management Association. Segoeencouraged planning and government be integrated in order to be most credible.
PLANNING OF THE MODERN CITY (1916)
By: Nelson Lewis, 1916.Planning of the Modern City uses a systems method of planning, calling on engineers and planners to each consider the other field in their approach to physical problems.
Cities in Evolution
By: Patrick Geddes, 1915Patrick Geddes, considered the Father of Regional Planning, published Cities in Evolution, which was an introduction to town planning and civics. Concept of “region” created here
WACKER’S MANUAL OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO (1912)
By: Walter Moody, 1912This book was adopted as a textbook for eighth graders in Chicago and is believed to be the first formal educational tool for city planning.
Associated Home Builders of the Greater East Bay v City of Livermore
California Supreme Court upheld that a temporary moratorium on building permits was ok until certain performance criteria were met for the city as a whole
Housing Act of 1949
Called for construction of 800,000 ne w housing units and created federal urban renewal program. 1st comprehensive housing legislation –tied federal $ to slum clearance and redevelopment, BUT you had to have a comp plan
US Reclamation Act (1902)
called for the revenue of federal lands to fund water development projects. Reclamation projects, called irrigation projects, became a priority as the west had inadequate preciptation to use for agriculture and demand for water increased.
Visioning
can be defined as a process that allows citizens of a community to develop an idea, or a vision, of what they community to be in the future, rather than focusing on the current conditions. Developing a vision typically occurs early in the planning process so that a theme that represents the community’s goal for the future can be built upon while developing a plan. Plans that incorporate a community’s vision statement are generally long-term plans that span 20-30 years
2005 – Lingle v. Chevron:
Case brought by Chevron based on an Agins-type claim that one of Hawaii’s statutes did not “substantially advance legitimate state interests”. Court ruled that even though Lingle could not be upheld on that issue, it did NOT overturn the 1980 Agins case in the whole.
1933 Central Place Theory - Christaller
Central Place Theory was developed by Walter Christaller in 1933 as a way to understand the distribution of cities and towns. The theory is based on two main concepts: range (the maximum distance consumers are willing to travel for a service) and threshold (the minimum market needed to support a service).
Rural Area Challenges and tools
Challenges • Maintaining small town character • Access to infrastructure and social services • Economic opportunities/limited tax base • Loss of farmland • Development at a proper scale v Tools • Agricultural Preservation • Urban growth boundaries • Transfer of Development Rights • Intergovernmental Cooperative Agreements • Eco-Tourism and Heritage Tourism
First historic district
Charleston, SC (1931)
New Deal Programs
Civilian Conservation Corps: CCC critical in development of environmental projects, including planting trees and constructing trails to transform national and state parks system. Works Progress Admin: constructed public buildings and roadsTennessee Valley Authority. Built dams to control flooding and developing the rural areas in Tennessee Valley to help farms and bring industries to area
Executive Order 12898
Clinton (1994). Requires federal agencies to address the disproportionate advese and environmental and human health impacts of its policies, programs and activities in minority and low income populations. EPA has office of Environmental Justice that guides government agencies during project decisions.
Impact Fees
Collected when building permits are issued, used to fund capital facilities from new development (earmarked by purpose and can’t be used just anywhere)
Revenue Bonds
commonly used for projects that generate revenue, these bonds are paid back through the money generated from the new service or project built using the funds from the bond. They are not supported by the full taxing power of the jurisdiction so these bonds do not need to be approved by the voters
Communicative Planning
Communicative Planning is based on the idea of intensive public participation and transparent planning. As planning often deals with several stakeholder interests and operates within a political realm, this theory uses a rational approach for planners to gather information and provide stakeholders with key information so people can be brought together to discuss community issues. Communicative planning also uses elements of advocacy and transactive planning as interest groups opinions are solicited. However, the most important difference between the other planning theories is in communicative planning, planners act as the facilitator amongst stakeholders and listen to stakeholder stories in an attempt to reach consensus. Communicative planning is perhaps the most utilized and preferred theory among planners.
Saul Alinsky:
community organizing § Back of the Yards neighborhood (1930s) § Rules for Radicals (1971)
Erie Canal creation
Completed in 1825, Why it was created:
The canal connected the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, making it easier to transport goods and people.
The canal reduced the cost of shipping and travel times.
The canal opened up the Midwest and Great Lakes to settlement.
What it meant:
The Erie Canal transformed New York City into the country’s main seaport.
It helped New York become the Empire State, a leader in population, industry, and economic strength.
The canal was a central part of the development of American national identity.
Broadacre City
Concept by Frank Lloyd Wright in Disappearing City - each family would be given one acre of land and transport would be reliant on car. Opposite of transit oriented development and similar to Edge City
Public Works Administration (PWA)
constructed in 1934 during Great Depression (New Deal era). Provided 85% of the cost of public housing projects, first federally supported housing program. Replaced by US Housing Authority, run by Catherine Bauer. Gave local housing authorities power of eminent domaine to acquire property and gave funds to construct public housing. Funding from USHA was only for households who had been in poor conditions and the rent could not exceed a predetermined percentage of the household income
1978 – TVA v. Hill (Secretary of Interior):
Court forced full implementation and enforcement of the Endangered Species Act. Halted the Tellico Dam, which was almost completely built, because the endangered Snail Darter — a fish — was found.
1928 – Nectow v City of Cambridge:
Court found for Nectow and against a provision in Cambridge’s ZO based on the due process clause. However, it did NOT overturn Euclid. This was the last zoning challenge to come before the SC until…
Joel Garreau
Created concept of “Edge City”. An edge city is a concentration of business, shopping, and entertainment outside a traditional downtown or central business district, in what had previously been a suburban, residential or rural area.
SAFETEA
Created HSIP as a funding category for repairing and reconstructing old infrastructure. Required data driven approach for improving highway safety. Focused on traffic related fatalities.
Housing and URban Development Act of 1965
created HUD, rent subsidies for lower income groups, home loans with reduced interest rates, and subsidies for public housing construction. First secretary - Robert Weaver
MAP21
Created streamlined performance based program so states would invest resources in multimodal projects. Less TEA
Homer Hoyt
Created the sector model, also known as the Hoyt model, is a model of urban land use proposed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt.[1] It is a modification of the concentric zone model of city development. The benefits of the application of this model include the fact it allows for an outward progression of growth. As with all simple models of such complex phenomena, its validity is limited.
Federal Highway Act of 1973
created TSM, which aimed to match travel demands to capacity, focused on effectiveness of system. Created MPOs and TIPs
Choker or pinch points
curb extensions on both sides to reduce speed and narrow street - Traffic calming -
Current Revenues
Current Revenues: while it is not technically a financing method, current revenues can be defined as the money raised through traditional taxing efforts
Father of City Planning
Daniel Burnham
DANIEL BURNHAM
Daniel Burnham was an architect, urban designer, and director of works for the 1893 World’s Fair. In his Chicago architecture practice, Burnham and partner John Wellborn Root designed some of the then-tallest buildings in America, precursors to the skyscraper like the Moorish-Venetian Rookery Building, completed in 1888.At the World’s Fair, Burnham masterminded the lavish “White City,†visited by some 12 million people. This set the stage for the City Beautiful movement, which sought to unify architecture, street, and landscape design into a comprehensive aesthetic vision, using neoclassical architecture to promote moral and social order among the urban citizenry. The most visible legacy of the City Beautiful are the grand civic centers Burnham went on to design in numerous American cities, including San Francisco, Los Angeles, Denver, and Philadelphia.The scope of Burnham’s vision was vast, encompassing the city as a whole. “Make no little plans,†he is famously quoted as saying, “they have no magic to stir men’s blood and probably themselves will not be realized. Make big plans; aim high in hope and work.â€He created sweeping street redesigns for many American cities in the early 1900s—essentially Haussmannization projects, with long diagonal boulevards connecting networks of monumental squares and roundabouts. Most were not implemented. The partially implemented 1909 Plan of Chicago was the first comprehensive plan for a growing city in the United States. It called for lakefront improvements and a new highway system, among other changes. Burnham’s advocacy was key to Chicago’s lakefront being set aside as public parkland.
City Beautiful Movement
Daniel Burnham, 1893 World Fair Columbian Exhibit, 1909 Plan for Chicago
City Beautiful
Daniel Burnham: Emerged as a way to address high rates of poverty, blight and crime. Believed that a beautiful city would inspire citizens to live more virtuous lives. Included:- tree lined boulevards- uniform building setbacks and heights- waterfront parks- civic buildings and museums centered around parks. Inspired by Haussmann’s work in Paris. Exampled in 1909 Chicago Plan, McMillan Plan (1901) and White City
For water and sewerage systems, the average cost per service unit
Decreases as the system nears its capacity
1985 – Williamson County Regional Planning Commission v Hamilton Bank:
Defined the ripeness doctrine for judicial review of takings claims.
Concentration
degree to which development is located in relatively few square miles. Sprawl covers greatest land
Continuity
degree to which devlopable land is built upon at urban density in unbroken fashion
Proximity
degree to which different land uses are close to each other. Often jobs-housing balance
Instituting Impacts
Demographic and Socioeconomic Data • Labor Force and Skill Sets • Land Use and Nuisance Issues (i.e. Noise and Light) • Property Tax / PILOT
Net Migration Pop Est
derived through the difference between the overall population growth rate and the rate of natural increase (the difference between the birth rate and the death rate) during the same period.
Demographic analysis types
Descriptive – tools, data, and methods to describe the population of an area § Trends – look at how demographic data has changed over time § Projections – estimates of future population and population structure
Shift Share Analysis
Descriptive technique for analyzing sources of change in the regional economy by looking at national share, industry mix, and regional shift. •
DHV
Design Hour Volumes - traffic capacity for a road
Clarence Stein and Henry Wright
Designed Radburn NJ using garden city design, focusing on pedestrian separation from cars through green belts and cul de sacs
Trip generations
determined by land use and intensity of use that causes people to travel. Likelihood of users to make trips depend on purpose of trip and socioeconomic facotrs (age/income/ownership for car/etc)
Shift Share Analysis
determines what portions of regional economic growth or decline can be attributed to national, economic industry, and regional factors. The analysis helps identify industries where a regional economy has competitive advantages over the larger economy. A shift-share analysis takes the change over time of an economic variable, such as employment, within industries of a regional economy, and divides that change into various components. A traditional shift-share analysis splits regional changes into just three components, but other models have evolved that expand the decomposition into additional components.
Concentric Circle Theory
Developed by Ernest Burgess in 1925, the Concentric Circle Theory was based on his belief that cities grow in a series of five outward rings. That is, land uses were determined based on distance from the downtown core. The innermost ring was the Central Business District (CBD) which contained government, office, and commercial functions. The second ring contained industrial uses. The third ring was a transition zone, including a mixture of industry and low-income housing. The fourth ring was where working men resided. The fifth ring was for high-class residential suburbs. This theory has also been referred to as the Invasion/Succession Theory.
James Rouse
Developer of shopping mall
Garden Suburb
Different than a garden city since all residential. Hampstead was a garden city that basically became a suburb. Where cul de sacs were invented.
Local roads
direct access to adjacent land. Do not carry through-traffic
Section E: Discipline of Members
Discipline of Members This section outlines the discipline methods should a member be found in violation of the Code of Ethics or convicted of a serious crime.
waterfront considerations
Diverse mix of uses • Considerations: § Public access § Tourism § Commercial ports and shipping § Environmental quality § Hazard mitigation
Economic Base techniques
divide regional industries into: Basic or export sectors and Non-basic or local sectors
A stratified sampling type
Divides a given population into classes
WEB DU BOIS
Du Bois was a writer, sociologist, civil rights advocate, the first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard, and a founder of the NAACP. Although The Souls of Black Folk (1903) is better known, his earlier book The Philadelphia Negro was the first sociological study of a black community in the United States. To understand Philadelphia’s segregated Seventh Ward—“a city within a cityâ€â€”Du Bois analyzed its street life, housing stock, and community institutions, and conducted detailed surveys of residents.The problems Du Bois observed in the Seventh Ward (and which, he noted, neighboring white communities willfully ignored) would persist for the next century and beyond. He famously stated that “The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color-line,†and helped the public see that divide more clearly, not just through words. At the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris, Du Bois exhibited 60 remarkably modern hand-drawn charts and maps—what we would call infographics—on black life in Georgia. Later, he became a socialist and pan-Africanist. He died at the age of 95 in Ghana, where he was working on an encyclopedia of the African diaspora.
Garden City
Ebenezer Howard’s movement, wrote book “Tomorrow, a Peaceful path to real reform”. First was Letchworth. Self-contained cities of 32,000 on 6,000 acres, with density of of 30,000 on 1,000 acres. - surrounded by greenbelts and owned through coops. Influenced New Town Movement, developed Forest Hills Garden, Sunnyside Gardens, and Park Forest and Radburn NJ. Used Cul de sacs and greenways to separate pedestrians from cars.
Economic Base Analysis
Economic base analysis is a theory that posits that activities in an area divide into two categories: basic and nonbasic. Basic industries are those exporting from the region and bringing wealth from outside, while nonbasic (or service) industries support basic industries. Because export-import flows are usually not tracked at sub-national (regional) levels, it is not practical to study industry output and trade flows to and from a region. As an alternative, the concepts of basic and nonbasic are operationalized using employment data.
EDMUND BACON
Edmund N. Bacon, Philadelphia’s planning director from 1949 to 1970, is honored for bringing national attention to the rebuilding of the American city in the post-World War II era. In Design of Cities, Bacon explains his philosophy of design, derived in part from his study of great urban design achievements of the past, and shows how it applies to the revived design of mid-20 century Central City Philadelphia. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1993.
Father of Zoning
Edward Bassett
EDWARD BASSETT
Edward Murray Bassett (1863–1948) chaired the commission that produced New York City’s landmark 1916 zoning code plan. Participant in a wide array of civic boards and commissions, including the National Conference on City Planning, a forerunner of the American Planning Association.
Federal aid highway act of 1956
Eisenhower argued part of defense program. $25 billion for 41,000 miles of roads. Reallocated $ from defense spending to roads. Rest of $ came from fuel taxes. Resulted in requirements for road design (12’ wide lanes, 10’ shoulders, speed 50-70mph)
City Efficient Movement
Emphasized technical details in planning and highlightd engineers and lawyers in city planning, rather than architects. Ended with introduction of automobile shifting priorities to public works projects instead of civic buildings. Court decisions supporting the implementation of land use controls, zoning, and subdivision regulations became the mechanisms for city planning
1st historic preservation ordinance
enacted in Charleston, SC in 1931
2006 - Massachusetts v. EPA:
EPA must provide a reasonable justification for why they would not regulate greenhouse gases.
1954 – Berman v Parker:
Established aesthetics and redevelopment as valid public purposes for exercising eminent domain. Wash.DC took private property and resold to a developer to achieve objectives of an established redevelopment plan.
EPA
Established by Executive Order (Nixon) December 2, 1970 • Air Quality Programs (includes emissions standards) • Radiation Protection (Natural, Waste, and Protection Standards) • Water Quality Programs (NPDES, 404, Drinking Water Standards) • Land Waste and Cleanup • Chemical and Toxin Regulation and Control
National Housing Act of 1934
Established FHA, responsible for expanding housing construction jobs. Created a program to insure private home mortgages. Developed minimum design standards for homes finances through program, directed at upper/middle class, which were incorporated into zoning and building codes. Meant that the houses lower class ppl could afford were zoned out.10% downpayment and 25 year repayment. Changed how homeownership worked, since now major suburbs were being built with this and VA fund programs. increased homeownership form 40% in 1940 to 65% in 1983.
1st UGB
established in the US in Lexington, KY in 1958 v
1977 – Village of Arlington Heights v Metropolitan Housing Development:
Established that discriminatory intent is required to invalidate zoning actions with racially disproportionate impact. Court overturned denial of rezoning to allow for multi-family residences in a previously single-family zoned area.
1926 – Village of Euclid v Ambler Realty Co.:
Established zoning as a legal use of PP by local government. The main issue in this case was “nuisance”, and that a certain use near a residence could be considered “a pig in a parlor”. Argued by Alfred Bettman, future 1st president of ASPO.
Symptomatic Population estimates
Estimation method includes using data such as building permits, voter registrations, and electric meter hookups
State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO)
Every State and U.S. Territory has a SHPO who, with the support of qualified staff, are charged with: Conducting a comprehensive survey of historic properties. Maintaining an inventory of historic properties. Administering state programs of Federal assistance.
Federal Aid Highway Act of 1944
expanded freeway to major cities and industrial centers, but not funded
Transportation Equity Act of 21st Century (TEA21)
extended ISTEA. Streamlined environmental documentation, focused more on equity and connecting suburbs to transit
1994 – Dolan v City of Tigard:
Extended Nollan’s essential nexus test to require “Rough proportionality” between development impacts and conditions on development. (bike path/store/lessening overall traffic)
Nuclearity
extent to which the urban area is characterized by a mononuclear or polynuclear development pattern. Edge cities have many employment nodes
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.
FactsA religious order operating in the mostly white, low-density suburban community of Arlington Heightsoutside of Chicago sought, with help from non-profit Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.(MHDC), to construct low- and moderate-income housing on some of its land. The Village’s Board ofTrustees denied MHDC’s application for a variance to construct 20 two-story buildings with a total of190 units on property zoned R-3 single-family housing, citing the community’s desire to preservesingle-family housing at the proposed location. MHDC filed suit against the Village, claiming racialdiscrimination and violation of the Equal Protection Clause.DiscussionCiting its 1976 decision in Washington v. Davis, the court recalled that “[d]isproportionate impact is notirrelevant, but it is not the sole touchstone of an invidious racial discrimination.” The court assertedthat “[p]roof of racially discriminatory intent or purpose is required to show a violation of the EqualProtection Clause. … When there is a proof that a discriminatory purpose has been a motivating factorin the decision, [] judicial deference is no longer justified.” Departures from normal proceduralsequences and legislative or administrative history may be “highly” relevant to determine whethersuch intent exists.HoldingBecause the rezoning request progressed according to the usual procedures, the property in questionhad been zoned for single-family housing since the Village first adopted a zoning map, and the publiccomments of the Plan Commission and Board of Trustees did not support inferences of invidiouspurposes, the zoning decision was rationally determined and the plaintiffs failed to carry their burdenof proving that discriminatory purpose was a motivating factor in the village’s decision.SignificanceEstablished that discriminatory intent is required to invalidate zoning actions with raciallydisproportionate impacts.
Koontz v. St. Johns River Management District
FactsCoy Koontz, Sr. owned 14.9 acres of land in Florida containing wetlands. He applied to the St. JohnsRiver Management District to develop 3.7 acres. To mitigate adverse environmental impacts, Koontzoffered to restrict future development on the remaining 11 acres with a conservation easement. TheDistrict considered the conservation easement for the 11 acres inadequate. The District Court statedthat it would approve Koontz’s development proposal only if he either: (a) reduced the size of hisdevelopment to one acre and deeded a conservation easement on the remaining 13.9 acres, or (b)built on the 3.7 acres, deeded a conservation easement to the District on the remainder of property,and agreed to hire contractors to make improvements to District-owned land several miles away.Koontz sued because he believed that the District’s demands for mitigation were excessive.DiscussionThe Court began its opinion by discussing the doctrine of unconstitutional conditions, which preventsthe government from coercing individuals into giving up Constitutional rights. The Court discussed thisdoctrine as relating to its decisions in Nollan v. California Coastal Commission (1987) and Dolan v. Cityof Tigard (1994), noting that the land use permitting process leaves permit applicants particularlysusceptible to coercion from governments, but that proposed land uses often invoke costs on thepublic that dedications of land can offset. For instance, the Court noted that a development may causemore traffic congestion which can be offset by the permit for development being conditioned on theowner’s agreement to deed land to widen the adjacent road. The Court then reiterated the principlesestablished by Nollan and Dolan that the government is allowed to condition the approval of a permiton the dedication of property, so long as the property the government demands and the social costs ofthe development share a “nexus” and “rough proportionality.” The Court wrote that the principlesof Nollan and Dolan apply regardless of whether the government approved a permit on the conditionthat the applicant turn over property or denied a permit because an applicant refused to do so.Further, the Court discussed the rising trend of monetary exactions (such as those imposed on Koontzby the District) in land use, noting that they are a commonplace alternative to common alternatives toeasements.HoldingGovernment’s demand for property from a land use permit applicant must satisfy the requirementsof Nollan and Dolan even where (a) the government denies the permit, and (b) the demand is formoney. The Court remanded for further proceedings on the merits of Koontz’s claims.SignificanceRecognized that monetary exactions are subject to the per se takings test of Nollan and Dolan
Kelo v. City of New London
FactsDecades of economic decline and job losses had left New London, Connecticut, a “distressed municipality,” as defined by the state. In the 1990s, the New London Development Corporation (NLDC)was reactivated to promote economic development in the city. NLDC devised a plan calling forconstruction of a research facility for the pharmaceutical company Pfizer on a site then containing 115privately owned properties. As a means of creating jobs, generating tax revenue, and sparkingdowntown revitalization, NLDC proposed to use eminent domain to acquire the private properties,most of which were non-blighted single-family homes. Susette Kelo and eight other petitionersprotested the city’s use of eminent domain to acquire their properties.DiscussionThe court reviewed basic propositions of takings law, positing that the government “may not take theproperty of A for the sole purpose of transferring it to another private party B, even though A is paidjust compensation,” while it may “transfer from one private party to another if future ‘use by thepublic’ is the purpose of the taking,” such as when land is condemned for construction of a passengerrailroad. The court believed that the case hinged on whether the development plan served a “publicpurpose,” and looked to the precedents of Berman v. Parker (approval of urban renewal projectplanned as a whole, even though some properties taken were not blighted) and Hawaii HousingAuthority v. Midkiff (special case of taking to eliminate an oligopoly) to find the answer.Holding”Given the comprehensive character of the plan, the thorough deliberation that preceded its adoption,and the limited scope of our review, it is appropriate for us … to resolve the challenges of theindividual owners … in light of the entire plan. Because that plan unquestionably serves a publicpurpose, the takings challenged here satisfy the public use requirement of the Fifth Amendment.” Thewell-researched nature of the city’s “integrated development plan” further justified deference to localdecision makers, in the court’s opinion.SignificanceUpheld the use of eminent domain for economic development purposes
Southern Burlington County NAACP v. Township of Mt. Laurel [Mount Laurel II]
FactsDespite the 1975 Mount Laurel decision, the New Jersey Supreme Court felt that the township hadcontinued its exclusionary housing policies, and that not enough legislative action had been taken tomandate provision of affordable housing on a regional level throughout the state. This second caseconsolidated six exclusionary housing cases.DiscussionIn a lengthy discussion, the court reviewed the criteria for “fair share” housing distributions describedin Mount Laurel I within the context of the new (1980) State Development Guide Plan (SDGP). This Planprovided “a statewide blueprint for future development” and its “remedial usein Mount Laurel disputes will ensure that the imposition of fair share obligations will coincide with theState’s regional planning goals and objectives.” In particular, the SDGP defined “growth areas”throughout the state, which the court asserted should be held to the Mount Laurel doctrine.HoldingAmong several rulings, the court concluded that:1. “every municipality’s land use regulations should provide a realistic opportunity for decenthousing for at least part of its resident poor who now occupy dilapidated housing.”2. SDGP-defined “growth areas” must “provide a realistic opportunity for fair share of a region’spresent and prospective low and moderate income housing.”3. Litigation should reference specific numbers of units needed in a municipality, both immediatelyand for a reasonable period of time in the future.4. A special three-judge panel would hear all Mount Laurel exclusionary housing cases.5. Beyond elimination of obstacles to affordable housing, municipalities should use affirmativepolicies such as density bonuses and mandatory set-asides.6. “Builder’s remedies” may allow developers, given judicial approval, to circumvent local zoningdecisions and build affordable housing units if a need has been established.SignificanceCreated the model fair housing remedy for exclusionary zoning.
Dolan v. City of Tigard
FactsDolan owned a plumbing and electrical supply store in Tigard’s Central Business District (CBD). Thetown’s Community Development Code required property owners in the CBD to reserve 15 percent oftheir property for open space and landscaping, and its Master Drainage Plan called for mitigation offlood damage around a creek that runs through the CBD. When Dolan applied for a permit to nearlydouble the size of her store, the local planning commission approved the application on the conditionthat she dedicate roughly 10 percent of her property, located in the creek’s floodplain, toward a flooddrainage system and a public pedestrian and bike path. Dolan appealed this exaction.DiscussionThe court evaluated the proposed conditions using the Nollan standard, and determined that a nexusdid indeed exist between the city’s dual goals of minimizing development in the creek’s floodplain andreducing traffic congestion in the CBD, and its proposed conditions dedicating a portion of Dolan’sproperty to open space and a public pathway, respectively. However, the court sought to “determinewhether the degree of the exactions demanded by the city’s permit conditions bear the requiredrelationship to the projected impact of [the] petitioner’s proposed development.” Reviewing severalstate laws regarding exactions, the court agreed that “the dedication should have some reasonablerelationship to the needs created by the [development].”Holding”No precise mathematical calculation is required, but the city must make some sort of individualizeddetermination that the required dedication is related both in nature and extent to the impact of theproposed development” — a “rough proportionality” between the proposed dedication and thedevelopment’s potential impact. In this case, because the city used vague standards to justify itsconditions on development (the proposed landscaping could have been private, and traffic studies didnot prove that the public pathway would alleviate traffic), taking 10 percent of Dolan’s property wasexcessive compared to the potential harm of the building expansion.SignificanceEstablished a higher standard for takings by extending Nollan’s “essential nexus” test to require “roughproportionality” between development impact and conditions.
Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon, 260 U.S. 393 (1922)
FactsIn 1878, Pennsylvania Coal Company granted a deed to homeowner Mahon for all surface property rights, but expressly reserved the right to mine coal beneath the surface, with Mahon waiving all rights to any damages caused. Mahon sued under Pennsylvania’s Kohler Act (1921), which forbade mining activities that caused any homes to subside.DiscussionThe court focused on the constitutionality of the Kohler Act. Reviewing property rights broadly, itmaintained that “[g]overnment hardly could go on if to some extent values incident to property could not be diminished without paying for every such change in the general law.” However, the court argued that since Mahon was only a single property owner, “A source of damage to such a house is not a public nuisance. … The damage is not common or public.” Therefore, “the statute does not disclose a public interest sufficient to warrant so extensive a destruction of the defendant’s constitutionally protected rights.”HoldingThe court held that the Kohler Act did not constitute an exercise of legitimate police power, because it would prevent the property owner (in this case, Pennsylvania Coal, the subsurface property owner) from its right to gain profit from the use of its property (by mining coal). In other words, “To make it commercially impracticable to mine certain coal has very nearly the same effect for constitutional purposes as appropriating or destroying it.” According to the court, “The general rule at least is, that while property may be regulated to a certain extent, if regulation goes too far it will be recognized as a taking.”SignificanceFor the first time, the U.S. Supreme Court indicated that regulation of land use, including regulation that destroys the economic value of a property, might constitute a taking.
Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co.
FactsIn 1922, Euclid, a suburb outside of Cleveland, adopted “a comprehensive zoning plan for regulatingand restricting the location of trades, industries, apartment houses, two-family houses, etc., the lotarea to be built upon, the size and height of buildings, etc.” Ambler Realty claimed that the zoningordinance as applied to its individual property (which would mostly allow only residential, as opposedto industrial, uses) violated its constitutional property rights, and constituted an attempt to restrict andcontrol the lawful uses of its land by confiscating and destroying much of its value.DiscussionThe court reviewed the history of nuisance law and zoning ordinances, the latter of which had been ineffect throughout the country for about 25 years. Asserting that “[a] nuisance may be merely a rightthing in the wrong place, like a pig in the parlor instead of the barnyard,” the court supporteddeference to the legislative, arguing that generally “[i]f the validity of the legislative classification forzoning purposes be fairly debatable, the legislative judgment must be allowed to control.” Although azoning ordinance that is intended to restrict the location of nuisances may in fact also restrict nonnuisance properties, the court said that it is difficult to define what exactly constitutes a nuisance (e.g.,an apartment building can be considered a nuisance if it causes increased traffic and noise), and thisregulation of uses generally falls within the police power.HoldingFor a zoning ordinance to be declared unconstitutional, it must be clearly arbitrary and unreasonable,having no substantial relation to the public health, safety, morals, or general welfare. For claims suchas Ambler’s, which protest the general validity of the zoning ordinance, the court will defer to thelegislature, although complaints about specific provisions of an ordinance may prove unconstitutional.SignificanceEstablished zoning as a valid exercise of police power by local government that in general does notviolate the constitutional protection of the right to property.
Southern Burlington County NAACP v. Township of Mount Laurel [Mount Laurel I]
FactsIn 1964, the suburban community of Mount Laurel, New Jersey, adopted an ordinance zoning 29.2percent of all land as industrial, 1.2 percent retail, and the remaining nearly 70 percent residential.Residential zones permitted only one detached, single-family dwelling per lot, with large minimums forlot size and building floor area. In 1968, a private nonprofit sought to build a subsidized multifamilyhousing development in a residentially zoned area of Mount Laurel, but zoning that required 20,000-square-foot lots effectively killed the project. The NAACP argued that the town’s zoning ordinancediscriminated against low-income families.DiscussionThe court asserted that the township had restricted multifamily housing in order to reduce the numberof school children in its jurisdiction, and thus keep property taxes low by not paying for additionalschool facilities. This type of land use planning exhibited a “selfish and parochial interest” in attracting”sizeable industrial and commercial ‘ratables’” to increase municipal revenues. Concerning the case athand, the court sought to answer the question of “whether a developing municipality can validly, by asystem of land use regulation, make it physically impossible to provide low and moderate incomehousing in the municipality for the various categories of persons who need and want it and thereby, asMount Laurel has, exclude such people from living within its borders because of their limited incomeand resources.”HoldingThe court held that every “municipality must, by its land use regulations, presumptively makerealistically possible an appropriate variety and choice of housing … it cannot foreclose the opportunityof the classes of people mentioned for low and moderate income housing and in its regulations mustaffirmatively afford that opportunity, at least to the extent of the municipality’s fair share of thepresent and prospective regional need therefore.” The Mount Laurel ordinance “is presumptivelycontrary to the general welfare and outside the intended scope of the zoning power,” and as such “nomunicipality may exclude or limit categories of housing” for fiscal purposes.SignificanceFormalized the concept of a regional “fair share” affordable housing burden
Penn Central Transportation Co. v. City of New York
FactsIn 1965, two years after the demolition of historic Pennsylvania Station in Manhattan, New Yorkadopted its Landmarks Preservation Law. The law established a Landmarks Preservation Commission,which among other duties regulated alterations to landmarked buildings, and included a provisionallowing historic property owners to sell air development rights to owners of nearby parcels. PennCentral, owner of the historic landmark Grand Central Terminal, leased the building to a developer in1968 in order to increase its income by building a 50-plus story skyscraper on top of the terminal. TheLandmarks Commission denied building permits for the project, citing impact both to the historicresource and the surrounding viewshed. Claiming that the denial constituted both a taking and aviolation of due process, Penn Central sought compensation from the City equal to the fair marketvalue of the property’s air rights.DiscussionTo decide whether the Landmark Commission’s action had effected a taking, the court focused on the”economic impact of the regulation … [and] the extent to which the regulation [] interfered withdistinct investment backed expectations,” as well as “the character of the governmental action”, i.e.whether the action “can be characterized as a physical invasion” versus “some public programadjusting the benefits and burdens of economic life to promote the common good.” Citing Euclid, thecourt argued that diminution in property value alone cannot establish a taking, which must apply to anentire property, not just a “discrete segment” (in this case, air space). In addition, because thelandmarks program, which benefited the public, applied to hundreds of properties, Penn Central wasnot solely burdened by the law. The court thus concluded that the Landmark Commission’s action didnot constitute a taking, that the Landmarks Law did not interfere with the “present uses” of theterminal, and that Penn Central could still obtain a reasonable return on its investment by selling itsdevelopment rights.Holding”The restrictions imposed [by the Landmarks Law] are substantially related to the promotion of thegeneral welfare and not only permit reasonable beneficial use of the landmark site but afford …opportunities further to enhance not only the Terminal site property but also other properties.”SignificanceIntroduced a means-end balancing test for regulatory takings and validated historic preservationcontrols.
Metromedia, Inc. v. City of San Diego
FactsIn 1972, San Diego enacted an ordinance prohibiting all off-site outdoor advertising display signs, i.e.any signs not identifying the use, facility, or service located on the premises where a product wasproduced, sold, or manufactured. Under the ordinance, all existing signs had to be removed after anamortization period ranging from 90 days to four years, depending on the location and depreciatedvalue of the sign. Metromedia, Inc., owner of many off-site billboards in the San Diego area, filedseveral complaints against the city, centering on the financial consequences of the ban for billboardcompanies. The Supreme Court considered the case after the Supreme Court of California held that thebillboard ban fell within the police power of San Diego.DiscussionThe court began its analysis by discussing the communicative and non-communicative aspects ofbillboards, e.g. their publicly beneficial uses from political campaign ads to promotion of charities, andthe difficulty posed by their size and immobility. Addressing the lesser Constitutional protectionof commercial speech, the court then reviewed its 1980 Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. PublicService Communication decision, which established a “four-part test for determining the validity ofgovernment restrictions on commercial speech as distinguished from more fully protected speech.”The ordinance passed the Central Hudson test because it followed substantial public interests —increasing traffic safety and improving the appearance of the city — and did not limit all speech via themedium of billboards.HoldingAlthough San Diego met the constitutional requirements of Central Hudson, the court held that theordinance violated First Amendment free speech protections by restricting noncommercial speech viabillboards to a similar degree as its commercial restrictions. The court asserted that “[t]he city does notexplain how or why noncommercial billboards located in places where commercial billboards arepermitted would be more threatening to safe driving or would detract more from the beauty of thecity.”SignificanceEstablished a high standard for aesthetic regulation of billboards by providing First Amendmentprotection to commercial firms that advertise goods or services not available at the location of thesign.
Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council
FactsIn 1986, Lucas paid $975,000 for two residential lots on the South Carolina coast, intending to buildsingle-family homes. In 1988, the state enacted the Beachfront Management Act, which barred Lucasand other coastal property owners from erecting any permanent habitable structures, in order toprevent erosion. Lucas claimed that the regulation constituted a taking. The state trial court awarded$1.2 million compensation, but the South Carolina Supreme Court reversed, contending that the statecould take property without compensation in order to prevent serious public harm.DiscussionThe court reviewed its previous rationales for takings requiring compensation: (1) any degree ofpermanent physical invasion, or (2) the denial of all economically feasible or beneficial use of property.While previous cases “suggested that ‘harmful or noxious’ uses of property may be proscribed bygovernment regulation without the requirement of compensation,” in this case the line between”harm-preventing” and “benefit-conferring” regulation was too blurred to justify a nuisance exceptionto these rules, requiring the creation of a new standard for regulatory takings.Holding”Where the State seeks to sustain regulation that deprives the land of all economically beneficial use …it may resist compensation only if … the proscribed use interests were not part of [the] title to beginwith.” In cases where property owners’ titles included such interests, “Any limitation so severe [as toremove all economically beneficial use of the property] cannot be newly legislated or decreed (withoutcompensation), but must inhere in the title itself, in the restrictions that background principles of theState’s law of property and nuisance already place upon land ownership.” To determine whether sucha “total taking” of economic value has occurred, courts must examine: (1) the degree of harm to publiclands and resources, (2) the social value of the claimant’s activities and their suitability to their locality,(3) the relative ease with which the alleged harm can be avoided, and (4) how long the use has beenengaged in by similarly situated owners. The case was remanded to allow the state to determine”background principles of nuisance and property law” applicable to the case.SignificanceDefined categorical regulatory takings and an exception for regulations rooted in background principlesof law; compensation to be paid to landowners when regulations deprive them of all economicallybeneficial land use unless uses are disallowed by title or by state law background principles of privateand public nuisances.
Tahoe-Sierra Preservation Council v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency
FactsNevada and California established the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency (TRPA) to study the impact ofgrowth on Lake Tahoe and to create moratoria, one lasting two years and another for an ensuing eightmonths (for a total of 32 months), on all development in the Lake Tahoe Basin. The petitioners, theTahoe-Sierra Preservation Council, Inc., representing about 2,000 owners of about 400 individualowners of vacant lots in the basin, filed suit in federal court, alleging that the moratoria faciallyviolated the takings clause of the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution.DiscussionThe Court reviewed its historical treatment of takings issues, with particular focus on the distinctionbetween physical takings, where a government physically acquires land, and regulatory takings, wherea government restricts the use of a property so much that it renders the property economically orpractically useless for a landowner. Relying on Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council, the petitionerscontended that the Court should establish a bright line rule that a regulation that imposes a temporarydeprivation of all economically viable use of property — no matter how brief — is an unconstitutionaltaking. The Court refused to do so, and found that claims of temporary deprivation are regulatorytakings claims that should be analyzed under the multi-factor framework of Penn CentralTransportation Co. v. New York City. The Court observed that creating a categorical rule that temporarydeprivations always constitute a taking would run afoul of important planning principles advancedthrough moratoria.HoldingThe Court held that the moratoria did not constitute a taking. The Court noted that its ruling wasnarrow in that the petitioners had brought only a facial challenge, and that the petitioners did notchallenge the moratoria under the Penn Central factors.SignificanceRecognizes that partial, temporary deprivations of property may constitute a taking under the FifthAmendment, but must be analyzed on a case-by-case basis under the regulatory taking frameworkof Penn Central
City of Edmonds v. Oxford House
FactsThe City of Edmonds, Washington, enacted a zoning ordinance that required single-family dwellingunits to be inhabited only by a “family,” which was defined as “an individual or two or more personsrelated by genetics, adoption, or marriage, or a group of five or fewer persons, who are not related bygenetics, adoption or marriage.” Oxford House-Edmonds, located in a single-family neighborhood andsubject to the family definition, operated a group home for 10-12 persons recovering from alcohol anddrug addiction. After learning of Oxford House’s operation, the City issued criminal citations to theowner and a resident of the house on the ground that the occupants did not constitute a family.Oxford House requested a reasonable accommodation under the Fair Housing Act, 42 U.S.C. §3604 etseq. (a change in rules, policies, or practices when necessary to afford handicapped persons an equalopportunity enjoy the housing of their choosing) allowing it to operate as, but the City denied therequest. The City sued Oxford House seeking a declaration that the FHA was inapplicable to the City’sdefinition of family under the FHA’s maximum occupancy exemption. The FHA exempts any”restriction[s] regarding the maximum number of occupants permitted to occupy a dwelling.” 42 U.S.C.§2607(b)(1). Oxford House filed a counterclaim, alleging that the definition of family was not exemptunder the FHA, and that the City violated the FHA by denying Oxford House’s request for a reasonableaccommodation.DiscussionThe court distinguished between ordinances capping the number of individuals who may occupy adwelling and ordinances limiting who may occupy a dwelling. Capping ordinances are meant to limitthe total number of occupants in order to prevent overcrowding and generally do so in relation to floorspace or the number and type of rooms. Ordinances defining family composition are intended topreserve the family character of a neighborhood rather than the total number of occupants.HoldingThe Court determined that the family composition ordinance does not cap the number of individualswho may occupy a dwelling. Rather, it describes who may live in the dwelling. The Court noted that theCity had a separate ordinance which limited the number of occupants of a dwelling based on floorarea. Accordingly, the ordinance was subject to the requirements of the FHA. The Court remanded thecase to the lower courts to determine whether the ordinance was unlawful under the FHA.SignificanceRecognizes that definitions of “family” contained in zoning ordinances that limit who may occupy adwelling are subject to the requirements of the FHA.
Lingle v. Chevron USA, Inc.
FactsThe difficulties presented by travel between the continental United States and the large number ofislands comprising the state of Hawaii resulted in a small concentration of oil refineries and distributorsin Hawaii. The unique circumstances in Hawaii led to most gasoline stations in the state operatingunder an independent lessee-dealer model. Chevron operated in the area predominately on theindependent lessee model, charging monthly rent for lessees and stipulating that all gasoline from thestations under contract use Chevron oil. Concern that the concentration of industry under this modelcould inflate gasoline prices prompted the Hawaii state legislature to enact a law that capped theamount of rent that an oil company could charge lessee-dealers at 15 percent of a dealers gross profitfrom sales. Chevron sued the state, alleging that this law constituted a regulatory taking of its propertyunder the Fifth Amendment. Chevron argued that the rent control statute was a regulatory takingbecause it failed to advance Hawaii’s goal of protecting consumers against high gasoline prices.According to Chevron, the rent control statute failed to substantially advance a legitimate stateinterest and thus constituted an unconstitutional regulatory taking under Agins v. City of Tiburon, 447U.S. 255 (1980).DiscussionThe Court reviewed its holdings in previous takings cases, noting that there were two situations wherethe government must compensate a landowner: (1) where government physically invades alandowner’s land, no matter how small the intrusion; and (2) where regulations deprive a landownerof all economically viable use of the property. The Court noted that outside of these two setcategories, regulatory takings claims should be evaluated under Penn Central Transportation v. NewYork City (1978). The Court found that the test established in Agins was more appropriate to dueprocess claims, as whether a regulation substantially advances a legitimate state interest is irrelevantto whether that regulation affects a taking of property without just compensation.HoldingThe court overruled Agins’s “substantially advances a legitimate state interest” test to determinewhether there has been a regulatory taking. The Court clarified that such a test is more appropriate indue process challenges. Instead, regulatory takings challenges that do not deprive a landownerof all economically viable use or property must be analyzed under Penn Central.SignificanceRecognizing that regulatory takings claims that do not deprive an owner of all economically viable useof land or property must be evaluated under the factors set forth in Penn Central.
Nollan v. California Coastal Commission
FactsThe Nollans owned beachfront property in Ventura County, California, bordered on either side bypublicly accessible beaches. Their lease required that upon purchase of the property, an existingbungalow on the lot be demolished. Similar to its decisions in other beachfront property cases, theCalifornia Coastal Commission (CCC) conditioned the Nollans’ building permit application to demolishthe bungalow and build a new home upon their allowing the public an easement to pass across aportion of their beachfront. The Nollans appealed the California Court of Appeal decision that the CCCaction did not constitute a taking.DiscussionThe court asserted that a permanent physical occupation had occurred since the public wascontinuously allowed to pass through the Nollans’ property without compensation. But does requiringthe public easement as part of a condition still constitute a taking? Analyzing the CCC’s motives, thecourt determined that in fact the legitimate state interests leading to the conditional approvalcentered on providing the public with visual access to the beach so as to reduce the psychologicalbarrier against beach use — not on the physical use of the beach on the Nollans’ property by thepublic.HoldingThe constitutionality of a building permit condition “disappears … if the condition substituted for theprohibition utterly fails to further the end advanced as the justification for the prohibition.” In otherwords, “the lack of [an essential] nexus between the condition and the original purpose of the buildingrestriction converts that purpose to something other than it was” — a taking for a legitimate stateinterest, but without compensation. The building permit condition thus constituted a taking, andcompensation must be paid.SignificanceCreated “essential nexus” takings test for conditioning development approvals on dedications andexactions. There must be a strong relationship between the problem created by proposeddevelopment and the proposed exaction (or mitigation), or else compensation may be required.
Reed v Gilbert
FactsThe Town of Gilbert, Arizona, had a sign code that imposed different requirements on ideological signs,political signs, and temporary directional signs. Ideological signs included any “sign communicating amessage or ideas for noncommercial purposes that is not a Construction Sign, Directional Sign,Temporary Directional Sign Relating to a Qualifying Event, Political Sign, or a sign owned or required bya governmental agency.” Of the three categories, the sign code treats ideological signs most favorablyin terms of allowable size, location, and duration. Political signs included any “temporary sign designedto influence the outcome of an election called by a public body.” The sign code treated political signsmore restrictively than ideological signs in terms of allowable size, location, and duration. Temporarydirectional signs relating to a qualifying event included any “temporary sign intended to directpedestrians, motorists, and other passersby to a ‘qualifying event.’” A qualifying event is any”assembly, gathering, activity, or meeting sponsored, arranged, or promoted by a religious, charitable,community service, educational, or other similar non-profit organization.” The sign code treatedtemporary directional signs more restrictively than political signs.Clyde Reed is the pastor of Good News Community Church. As a small, cash-strapped entity, the churchholds services at a variety of locations. The church relies on temporary directional signs to inform thepublic about where it will hold services. The Town of Gilbert issued two citations to the church forviolating the sign code’s durational limits and for failing to include the date of the events on the signs.The church and Reed sued to challenge the Town’s sign code as an abridgment of their freedom ofspeech.DiscussionThe Court began by discussing the concept of content-neutrality, a central tenet of First Amendmentlaw, that requires the government to regulate speech without regard to its content, subject matter, ormessage. If a law is considered content-based, it triggers strict scrutiny, under which government canprevail only if it the challenged law furthers a compelling interest that is narrowly tailored. A law canbe content-based either on its face or, if facially neutral, with respect to its governmental purpose. Butgovernmental purpose cannot be used to justify a law that is content-based on its face. Content-baseddiscrimination occurs where the speech regulations target specific subject matter, even if they do notdifferentiate among viewpoints within that subject matter. Finally, the Court stated that sign codesmay regulate many aspects that have nothing to do with a sign’s message, including size, buildingmaterials, lighting, moving parts, and portability.HoldingThe Court held that the sign code was content-based on its face because it targeted specific subjectmatter: temporary directional signs were treated worse than ideological or political signs. The signcode failed strict scrutiny because it was underinclusive. While the Town of Gilbert argued that the signcode was meant to advance the compelling governmental interests of aesthetics and traffic, politicalsigns and ideological signs affected these alleged interests the same as temporary directional signs butwere treated better.SignificanceRecognized that subject matter distinctions are facially content-based and subject to strict scrutiny,and clarified the relevance of governmental purpose in enacting the challenged law.
Golden v. Planning Board of Ramapo
FactsThe Town of Ramapo, New York, enacted a concurrency ordinance prohibiting any proposeddevelopment unless developers obtained a special permit. Permits were awarded based on a pointsystem that took into account available municipal facilities in the development area, includingsewerage, drainage, roads, firehouses, park and recreation space, and public schools. The ordinancewas designed to phase development over time — as long as 18 years — although developers couldaccelerate the approval process by constructing their own infrastructure. Golden protested the denialof a special permit to construct a residential subdivision.DiscussionAfter confirming that the ordinance was permissible under the local zoning enabling act, the courtasserted that the “restrictions conform to the community’s considered land use policies as expressed inits comprehensive plan and represent a bona fide effort to maximize population density consistentwith orderly growth.” Furthermore, the court argued, the temporary nature of the growth controlsallowed properties to be put to profitable uses within a reasonable time, meaning that the permitsystem did not qualify as a form of confiscation. In addition, property owners could develop their landif they provided their own infrastructure.Holding”…where it is clear that the existing physical and financial resources of the community are inadequateto furnish the essential services and facilities which a substantial increase in population requires, thereis a rational basis for ‘phased growth,’” validating the Ramapo ordinance.SignificanceRecognized growth phasing programs as valid exercises of police power.
Stop the Beach Renourishment, Inc. v. Florida Department of Environmental Protection
FactsUnder Florida law, littoral owners have the right of access to the water, the right to use the water forcertain purposes, the right to an unobstructed view of the water, and the right to receive accretionsand relictions to the littoral property. In Florida, the littoral owner takes title to dry land added to hisproperty by accretion, but formerly submerged land that has become dry land by avulsion continues tobelong to the owner of the seabed (usually the State) because the property abutting the water belongsto the State. The mean high-water line is the ordinary boundary between private beachfront, or littoralproperty, and state-owned land. In 1961, Florida passed the Beach Shore Preservation Act whichestablishes procedures for “beach restoration and nourishment projects,” under which a fixed erosioncontrol line replaces the fluctuating mean high-water line as the boundary between privately ownedlittoral property and state property. When accretion to the shore moves the mean high-water lineseaward, the property of littoral owners is not extended to that line (as the prior law provided). In2003, the City of Destin, Florida, and Walton County, Florida, applied to the state to add a largequantity of sand to beach that had been eroded by several hurricanes. Beachfront property ownerswere upset by the decision and incorporated a nonprofit organization known as Stop the BeachRenourishment, Inc. to halt the action. The petitioners argued that the additional sand deprived theowners of their rights to accretion and a water boundary, and that the government action amountedto a taking of their land in violation of the Fifth Amendment.DiscussionThe Court began the opinion by reviewing the overarching principles of takings jurisprudence, includingthe principle that states effect a taking if they recharacterize private property as public property. TheCourt noted that state law defines property interests and therefore looked to Florida property law todetermine whether beachfront landowners had a perpetual right for their property to touch the water.Under Florida law, the State has the right to fill its own seabed and that filled land will belong to theState.HoldingThe Court held that there was no taking because the submerged land at Florida’s shoreline continuedto belong to the State even after the State added new sand to extend the beach.SignificanceRecognizes that states may fill submerged land without constituting a taking on the rights of littoralproperty owners.
Standard State Zoning Enabling Act and Standard City Planning Enabling Act
Failed to define the relationship between planning and zoning.Sanctioned piecemeal adoption of a comp plan’s components
Aldo Leopold
father of ecology, called for wilderness protection
FHWA
Federal Highway Administration
3 major components of demographic analysis:
Fertility Mortality Migration
Budgeting Process §
Financial Analysis and Policy Choices § Expenditure Estimates § Review of Expenditure Estimates § Revenue Estimates § Budgeting Forecasting § Budget Document § Budget Review and Adoption § Budget Execution
Gifford Pinchot
first chief of US Forest Service.
Lawrence Veiller
First Housing reformer and founded National Housing Administration
1976 – Young v. American Mini Theaters:
First sexually-oriented business case, which held that zoning for adult businesses does not automatically infringe on 1st amendment rights.
Agricultural Act (1949)
first time permanent legal basis by which surplus food can be donated to friendly overseas countries as development aid.
1st Tenement Housing
First was Dumbbell in 1855 in NYC. Poor lighting, no ventilation, brought increased attention to public health and public health movement.
Fiscal Impact Analysis
Fiscal Impact Analysis is a tool used to measure the revenues and costs to be incurred by a local entity if a potential project or policy change were to be implemented. For example, a new residential development in a given town will require additional services for the new residents such as new utility lines, emergency services, additional road infrastructure, and transit service. These additional services provided to the new residents are calculated as a cost to the town. The revenue that the potential development would provide is calculated from the additional local and property tax revenues the town would receive from the additional residents. While the analysis allows for the net fiscal impact of a development or proposed policy change to be determined, critics claim that it often times does not fully represent the benefits and impacts a project may have. In its most basic form, fiscal impact analyses fail to recognize qualitative benefits of projects or policy changes. This occurs most frequently with affordable housing projects as they may result in a negative fiscal impact according to analysis but it does not take into account the intrinsic benefits of providing quality, affordable housing options to those who did not previously have it. Standard fiscal impact analysis methods also do not account for the extended benefit of new service beyond the proposed development for which they are being provided. For example, if a new transit line is implemented to serve a new mixed-use development, other people in that city will benefit from having this new option.
Economic Analysis
Floor Area Ratio (FAR) – floor space/lot size; Location Quotient (LQ); Economic Base Multiplier; Fiscal Impact Analyses; Net Present Value (monetary benefits outweigh costs); Benefit-Cost Analysis (used to compare alternatives); Fiscal Impact (such as Per Capita Multiplier Method)
Types of groups
Focus Groups § Stakeholder Groups § Task Force § Steering Committee
EBENEZER HOWARD
Following the long English pastoral tradition and a personal stint as a homesteader in Nebraska, the self-educated stenographer Ebenezer Howard was attuned to the “keen and pure delights†of the countryside. But he was also a Londoner, and a realist. He understood the economic forces that were driving urbanization at the end of the 19th century, and the miserable conditions that poverty and overcrowding had created for many of his fellow city-dwellers.With his concept of the Garden City, Howard thus attempted to marry the benefits of city and country living. In his much-read book Garden Cities of To-Morrow (1902), Howard presented careful diagrams of these new 6,000-acre towns, which would be built on open land and linked by railroads. The inner ring of the city would contain a central park and civic institutions, followed by houses and commercial avenues, and finally industrial and agricultural uses at the fringes.Amazingly, Howard brought his dream to fruition in the form of two towns near London: Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City. But even more significantly, Howard’s vision of building new towns from scratch, segregating land uses, and balancing urban activity with rural fresh air and nature proved tremendously influential during the 20th century’s waves of suburbanization. The Garden City was an inspiration to Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright, who, in their respective utopian blueprints, saw the automobile as a means to create decentralized cities with separated land uses at a large scale. According to critics such as Jane Jacobs, Howard’s theories helped inculcate an anti-urban bias in American city planning.
Patrick Geddes
Following the philosophies of Auguste Comte and Frederic LePlay, he introduced the concept of “region” to architecture and planning and coined the term “conurbation”. Later, he elaborated “neotechnics” as the way of remaking a world apart from over-commercialization and money dominanc. He was a proponent of the Comte-LePlay view of the interconnectedness of city region as a potentially autonomous unit. He adopted Spencer’s theory that the concept of biological evolution could be applied to explain the evolution of society, and drew on Le Play’s analysis of the key units of society as constituting “Lieu, Travail, Famille” (“Place, Work, Family”), but changing the last from “family” to “folk”. In this theory, the family is viewed as the central “biological unit of human society” from which all else develops. According to Geddes, it is from “stable, healthy homes” providing the necessary conditions for mental and moral development that come beautiful and healthy children who are able “to fully participate in life”.Geddes drew on Le Play’s circular theory of geographical locations presenting environmental limitations and opportunities that in turn determine the nature of work. His central argument was that physical geography, market economics and anthropology were related, yielding a “single chord of social life [of] all three combined”.
1901 Plan
For DC, part of City beautiful movement
NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CITY PLANNING
FORERUNNER OF THE APA
Sierra Club
Founded by John Muir in 1892.
Frederick Adams
Frederick J. Adams (1901–1980) founded the city and regional planning department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1932. Adams insisted that the planning program should be interdisciplinary while also making sure that the field maintained its own identity. His students helped to create university planning programs at the University of California at Berkeley, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, Ohio State University, and Pennsylvania State University at State College. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1996.
Frederick Law Olmsted Jr.
Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. followed in his father’s footsteps, becoming a notable American landscape architect and city planner. He was best known for his wildlife conservation efforts and contributions to national parks. He worked on projects in Acadia, Everglades, and Yosemite National Parks. President Theodore Roosevelt would appoint him to serve on the McMillan Commission.
Edge City
From 1985 to present, suburbanization has only continued and we’ve seen a rise of the megaburb and edge city. An Edge City is when a new concentration of businesses, shopping, and entertainment forms outside of the traditional urban area in what had been considered the suburban or rural area of the city, making the area more selfcontained. Fairfax, Virginia is identified as a common example of an Edge City. In 1991, Joel Garreau popularized the term and established five rules for a place to be deemed an edge city. 1. An edge city must have more than five million square feet of office space which hosts 20,000 to 50,000 workers. 2. An edge city must have retail space exceeding 600,000 square feet. 3. There must be more jobs than bedrooms in an edge city. 4. It must be perceived as one place by the population. 5. An edge city should be nothing like a city 30 years prior
Gant Chart, Bubble Chart, Flow Chart, matrix
Gantt Chart:Primarily used in project management to track task progress, dependencies, and deadlines over time.
Bubble Chart:Useful for visualizing relationships between multiple data points where one dimension is represented by the size of the bubble.
Flow Chart: Represents a process or workflow with clear steps and connections, often used to document procedures.
Matrix:A structured way to organize data in rows and columns, allowing for comparisons and analysis across different variables.
Extrapolation Methods:
Good at the county level, bases growth on observed growth trends, watch out for mitigating factors.
In-person survey
good for deeper questions/follow ups
Concurrence
growth model to control timing of development by linking approvals to Capital Improvement Plan (CIP). Requires infrastructure is available at specified level of service before development approvals are issues. Florida requires adequate infrastructure is either in place or will be soon
Jared Diamond
Guns, Germs and SteelDiamond is commonly referred to as a polymath, stemming from his knowledge in many fields including anthropology, ecology, geography, and evolutionary biology.[
Telephone Survey
Hard to get people to answer or cell phone users
HARLAND BARTHOLOMEW
Harland Bartholomew was the first planner ever to be put on staff by an American city. It was Newark, New Jersey, that hired Bartholomew to work on a comprehensive plan in 1914, a year after he started his planning career. His 1932 book, Urban Land Uses, is considered a classic in quantitative analysis.
1945 Multiple Nuclei Theory - Harris and Ullman
Harris and Ullman argued that cities do not grow around a single nucleus, but rather several separate nuclei. Each nucleus acts like a growth point. The theory was formed based on the idea that people have greater movement due to increased car ownership.Harris and Ullman argued that cities do not grow around a single nucleus, but rather several separate nuclei. Each nucleus acts like a growth point. The theory was formed based on the idea that people have greater movement due to increased car ownership.
Multiple Nuclei Theory
Harris and Ullman developed the Multiple Nuclei Theory in 1945, which stated that cities developed a series of specific land use nuclei. A land use nuclei formed as a result of access to natural resources, land prices, and the clustering of similar land uses. For instance, certain land uses take advantage of one anothers facilities and dependencies. This theory best explains cities with more than one Central Business District.
First state to institute statewide zoning
Hawaii
1st State to institute statewide zoning
Hawaii in 1961
Rachel Carson
Her book (Silent Spring) in 1962 became an expose on the effects of pesticide use and became a catalyst for the environmental rights movement
Federal Programs
Historic Preservation § Emergency Management § Flood Protection § Social Justice (e.g. ADA) § Telecommunications § Religion (RLUIPA) § Census & other data gathering § Recreation & Parks § National Defense & Security § Immigration § Education § Tribal Affairs § Oil & Mineral Leasing § Energy
Sector Theory
Homer Hoyt developed the Sector Theory in 1939. Hoyt did not agree with the concentric circle theory and argued instead that land use was linked to transportation routes. As a result of transportation, cities developed as a series of sectors radiating out from the Central Business District. Commercial and industry followed transportation routes tightly, while expensive housing moved toward open spaces. Less expensive housing fell wherever land was left.
Centrality
how close the development is located to the CBD.
Modal split
How people get somewhere - bike, walk, car, transit
Jacob Riis
How the Other Half Lives. Took photos and documented how literally crappy it was in the tenements.
Clustering
how tightly bunched development is to minimize developed land. Focuses on development patterns within individual grids.
Housing
HUD, EDA, CDBG § National Housing Acts (1934-1954) § Fair Housing Act (1968)
Joseph Hodnut
Hudnut’s own architectural designs were conservative, but as an educator he promoted modern design,[6] and in the 1930s, he brought the German modernist architects Walter Gropius—founder of the Bauhaus—and Marcel Breuer to the Harvard faculty.[2] Their move to the United States led to a change in American architectural education, away from historicism to an architecture that relied on craft and modern industrial techniques.
2006 - SD Warren v. Maine Board of Environmental Protection:
Hydroelectric dams are subject to Section 401 of the Clean Water Act
Father of Modern Ecology
Ian McHarg
EA and EIS
If the EA determins there’s a significant impact, an EIS is required. If the EA for a federal action finds the iaction will not have an environmental impact, then a FONSI Finding of No Significant Impact must be filed
Exactions
Improvement or dedication of land, Fees in lieu, Impact fees
1925 Concentric Ring Theory - Ernest Burgess
In 1925, sociologist Ernest Burgess developed the concentric zone theory, also known as the Burgess model, to explain how cities grow and develop. The theory suggests that cities expand outward in concentric rings, with each ring having a different land use.
Explanation
The model is based on Burgess’s observations of Chicago from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The model’s central idea is that as a city grows, it expands outward in concentric rings, with each ring having a different land use.
The model is based on the idea that cities grow through a process of invasion and succession.
The model assumes that there is a correlation between distance from the city center and economic status.
The model assumes that wealthier people live further away from the city center.
Zones
Central Business District (CBD): The center of the model
Transition zone: A zone of mixed residential and commercial uses
Low-class residential homes: Inner suburbs with significant poverty and a large immigrant population
Middle-class homes: Outer suburbs with better quality housing
Commuters zone: A zone with higher quality housing and longer commuting costs
Limitations
The model doesn’t apply universally because not all cities are built on flat land.
The model has many assumptions that make it difficult to apply to other cities.
1932 Broad Acre City - Frank Lloyd Wright
In 1932, Frank Lloyd Wright introduced his Broadacre City concept in his book The Disappearing City. Broadacre City was a plan for a decentralized community that Wright believed would improve the lives of people by providing more space, air, light, and silence.
What was Broadacre City?
A plan for a decentralized community with beautiful housing and at least one acre of land for each family
A reaction to the crowded, polluted, and poorly designed industrial cities of the time
A vision for “urban renewal” that involved destroying the “urban” part of the city and starting over
Why did Wright propose Broadacre City?
Wright was frustrated with the industrial city, especially New York City during the Great Depression
He believed that cities were cramped, poorly designed, and lacked essential elements
He was looking for a way to improve the quality of life for people
How did Wright promote Broadacre City?
Wright refined the concept in books and articles until his death in 1959
In 1935, he exhibited a 12-foot by 12-foot scale model of Broadacre City at the Rockefeller Center
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, 1991
Increased public participation – ‘meaningful’ participation • Established the Surface Transportation Program
Incremental Planning
Incremental Planning was proposed in 1959 by Charles Lindbloom in his publication “The Science of Muddling Through.” Lindbloom introduced the idea that individuals make successive, incremental decisions and, therefore, planning should be more piecemeal and pragmatic. His point was that the real world is not rational and comprehensive so neither should planning. Instead, it should be approached incrementally. He argues that major policy changes are most successful when done in small increments over long periods of time and this approach is most common in planning offices today.
Strategies for Economic development
Industrial Parks; Research and Development Parks; Main Street Programs; Business Improvement District (BID); Business incubators; Tax Increment Financing (TIF); Elm Street Programs ; Missing Middle Housing ; Industrial Cluster Development
Line Item Budgeting
ine-item Budgeting: as one of the most simple methods for budgeting, lineitem budgeting is easy to prepare and understand. In this method, expenses are separated into different groupings such as personnel related expenditures or supplies, with emphasis being placed on projected expenditures for the following year. The disadvantages of this method include its short-term horizon and a lack of connection to other major plans such as a CIP or comprehensive plan, creating a disconnect between the budget and the identified objectives of an agency.
New Town
Influenced by Garden Cities movement within the United States, which included Forest Hills Garden, New York; Radburn, New Jersey (1928); Reston, Virginia; and Sunnyside Gardens, New York (1924); and Park Forest, Illinois. Radburn, New Jersey was designed by Clarence Stein and Henry Wright in 1928 and they used cul-de-sacs and greenways to separate pedestrian traffic from automobiles.
President Roosevelt established the Resettlement Administration during the Depression in 1935. This agency, ran by Rexford Tugwell, was responsible for the New Towns program, which developed three cities founded on Ebenezer Howard’s principles. These were; Greendale Wisconsin; Greenhills, Ohio; and Greenbelt, Maryland.
Input-Output Analysis
input–output model is a quantitative economic model that represents the interdependencies between different sectors of a national economy or different regional economies.A main use of input–output analysis is to measure the economic impacts of events as well as public investments or programs as shown by IMPLAN and Regional Input–Output Modeling System. It is also used to identify economically related industry clusters and also so-called “key” or “target” industries (industries that are most likely to enhance the internal coherence of a specified economy). By linking industrial output to satellite accounts articulating energy use, effluent production, space needs, and so on, input–output analysts have extended the approaches application to a wide variety of uses.
McMillan Plan
instrumental in developing DC
Minor Arterial
Interconnect principle artierials and provide less mobility as they distribute traffic to smaller areas
Georges-Euane, Baron Haussmann, 1809-1891
It’s hard to overstate the urban legacy of Baron Haussmann, prefect of the Seine during the reign of France’s Emperor Napoleon III. Between 1853 and 1870, Haussmann used his authoritarian mandate to transform the medieval Paris into the paragon of a modern city.He ran broad new boulevards through maze-like old neighborhoods to slow the spread of disease and improve transportation (and, some historians have said, make it easier for troops to put down the armed rebellions that erupted in the French capital). The buildings that replaced the medieval quarters—with five or six stories and mansard roofs—have since become symbols of Paris and his remaking of it. Haussmann placed grand, secular monuments strategically along the sight lines of the new boulevards, and created parks and squares. New sewer and gas lines improved sanitation and, virtually overnight, transformed Paris into the City of Light.Needless to say, these changes came with significant costs. According to his own estimates, Haussmann’s renovation of Paris displaced 350,000 people, even as it employed one-fifth of Parisian workers. Historic fabric was destroyed, and the new look of the city was derided by some contemporaries as “triumphant vulgarity.†But “Haussmannization†was widely adopted across Europe at the end of the 19th century, shaping the forms of countless cities. Today, Haussmann-style streets and buildings are frequently cited as examples of walkable, livable urbanism, even if the prefect’s tactics were questionable.
Settlement House Movements
Jane Adams- Housing reform institutions where middle class settlement workers would live and share knowledge and culture with low-income neighbors. provided daycare, education and healthcare to poor in their community - Hull House in Chicago was Addams’s.
John Nolen
John Nolen is a landscape architect best known fordesigning Mariemont, Ohio. He later went on to create the 1st comprehensive plan in Florida; plan Madison, Wisconsin’s park system; and design Venice, Florida
Cholera epidemic (1853)
John Snow determined using map and family interviews to understand how a hand pump caused the epidemic
Lincoln Steffens
Joseph Lincoln Steffens (April 6, 1866 – August 9, 1936) was an American investigative journalist and one of the leading muckrakers of the Progressive Era in the early 20th century. He launched a series of articles in McClure’s, called “Tweed Days in St. Louis”,[1] that would later be published together in a book titled The Shame of the Cities. He is remembered for investigating corruption in municipal government in American cities and for his leftist values.
Speed tables
larger than speed hump entire car can fit on section before continuing on road Traffic calming -
Largest concrete structure in US
Largest concrete structure in the US is Grand Coulee Dam (completed 1941)
Modernism/Radiant City
Le Corbusier (1922) - urban environment based on building, car and limited access highway. Housing and ofifce towers arranged in abstract formal relationships to maximize exposure to sun. Each group isolated from others in park-like settings with museums, stadiums, etc along waterfronts. Very little ornamentation and primarily box shaped buildings. Vertical architecture that would leave open space for people to enjoy as public landscaping. Peds/cyclists have dedicated routes, business districts connected by underground transit to nearby residences and commercial districts. Residences separated from industrial uses.
Greenfield Leapfrog
Leapfrog development occurs when developers skip over land to obtain cheaper land further away from cities, thus, leaving huge areas empty between the city and the new development. It can be seen when it comes to the development or urbanization of more rural areas.
GRACE LEE BOGGS
Lee Boggs, a Chinese-American philosopher and political activist who spent decades striving for a second, more just American revolution, began her career as a brilliant young academic, moonlighting as a tenants-rights activist on Chicago’s South Side. From the early 1940s, she became enmeshed in radical black politics, with her belief in “the power that the black community has within itself to change this country when it begins to move.â€In 1953, she married the African American leftist James Boggs in Detroit, and the two became a legendary activist duo there, hosting Malcolm X when he visited. By the late 1970s, Lee Boggs had distanced herself from the Black Power and New Left movements and focused her energies on neighborhood activism. She and her husband founded Detroit Summer, an intergenerational community arts and activism organization. She planted community gardens, organized workers, and fought crime in a city undergoing decline.In her later years, she became more involved in environmental and anti-war activism, but remained a popular figure in Detroit, with a regular column in the (now-shuttered) black newspaper the Michigan Citizen. The author of several books, Lee Boggs was the subject of the 2014 documentary American Revolutionary.
Adequate Public Facilities Ordinance
legislative tool to tie growth in a region to availability of public infrastructure. If existing capacities of transp., schools, water, sewer, or roads are unable to support development, government may deny or delay submittals. Instead of approving development, the APFO places the burden on the developer to ensure adequate service is available. Focuses on availability
1968 – Cheney v Village 2 at New Hope:
Legitimized planning unit development (PUD) process.
LEWIS MUMFORD
Lewis Mumford (1895–1990), author and critic, promoted the idea of planning through such books as The Culture of Cities (1938) and The City in History (1961), the latter of which received the National Book Award. He believed that urban planning should accentuate a natural relationship between people and their living spaces.The author of more than 30 books, Lewis Mumford was a public intellectual of remarkable breadth, with a critical view that spanned history, philosophy, city planning, technology, and literature. As his New York Times obituary noted, “there was scarcely any aspect of modern society that he left unexamined.†His best-known book may be 1961’s The City in History, which received the National Book Award.Raised in New York City, Mumford had an unconventional education, attending night school at City College without graduating, due to illness, and then taking courses at Columbia and the New School. He wrote the “Sky Line†column on architecture for The New Yorker for three decades.Mumford was not just a prolific and influential writer on urban matters. In 1923 he co-founded the Regional Planning Association of America, a well-connected group that promoted Ebenezer Howard’s planning principles. He lived those ideals, too, moving into Sunnyside Gardens in Queens, an innovative development of modestly priced apartments and townhouses, arranged around common green courts to emphasize urban nature and resident co-operation.Mumford’s star has dimmed since his death, and some know him today for the condescending title of his New Yorker review of The Death and Life of Great American Cities: “Mother Jacobs’ Home Remedies.†While he always seemed to look down on the life of the streets rather than be part of it, he was prescient about the risks of technology divorced from ethics in planning. His belief in planning for the public good may be due for a reappraisal in the age of climate change.As Richard Sennett—a disciple of Jacobs—notes in his recent book Building and Dwelling, solutions on the local scale that Jacobs advocated don’t get major infrastructure built or solve citywide problems. Mumford’s commitment to the Garden City was not naive utopianism: Sennett writes that Mumford, as a socialist, “thought that people, in order to fight, need to see what an alternative vision of the city might look like.â€
2005 – Kelo et al. v City of New London:
Like Berman v. Parker in 1954, involved the City taking private property by eminent domain and transferring it to a private entity for redevelopment The Court held in a 5-4 decision that the general benefits a community enjoyed from economic growth qualified such redevelopment plans as a permissible “public use” under the takings clause of the 5th Amendment. New London was aided by existence of well-documented redevelopment plans.
1975 –Construction Industry of Sonoma County v. Petaluma:
Limited the # of residential building permits per year to 500 & placed a population cap of 55,000. The purpose was to make sure that the growth rate did not exceed the City’s ability to fund capital improvements. Court upheld.
Charles Lindbloom
Lindblom was one of the early developers and advocates of the theory of incrementalism in policy and decision-making.[3][4][5] That view (also called gradualism) takes a “baby-steps,” “muddling through,” or “Echternach-theory” approach to decision-making processes. In it, policy change is, under most circumstances, evolutionary, rather than revolutionary. He came to that view through his extensive studies of welfare policies and trade unions throughout the industrialized world. Those views are set out in two articles separated by 20 years: “The Science Of ‘Muddling Through’” (1959) and “Still Muddling, Not yet through†(1979), both of which were published in Public Administration Review.
Local Street
Local roads provide direct access to adjacent land and allow users to access r
Minor collectors
lower speeds and fewer signalized intersections, serve lower density residential and commercial areas
This type of survey is inexpensive but does not work well with the elderly or the poorly educated
Mailed Survey
Major Collector
Major collectors serve both land access and traffic circulation in commercial and higher-density residential areas. These roadways are typically higher speeds and have more signalized intersections than arterials.
Federal aid highway act of 1961
mandated for transportation planning around country for all areas with over 50,000 ppl. Process is 3 Cs- Continuing, Comprehensive, Cooperative
Post-WW2 population trends
mass migration - inner city white ppl move to the suburbs- Norther whites went from Rust Belt to Sun Belt (CA to FL)- black ppl left south to move north to rust belt- increased suburban sprawl, because of housing programs to support homeownership, GI Bill, and investment during the war of transportation infrastructure.As ppl moved to suburbs in white flight, those left behind in cities were african american. Left a pattern of residential segregation in housing, transportation and education. Redlining and restrictive covenants became banned in 1968 Civil Rights Act (although could be considered still around in other ways)
IAN MCHARG
McHarg was a pioneering landscape architect from Scotland who advocated designs that work with, rather than against, a place’s ecology. In this respect, he helped move the field of landscape architecture into the realm of environmental planning.Published in the early days of the environmental movement, McHarg’s 1969 book Design With Nature influenced policies for managing coastlines, watersheds, and forests, and advocated for environmental review of major development projects. His use of separate map overlays to evaluate different ecological concerns—including climate, hydrology, and soil conditions—laid the intellectual groundwork for Geographic Information Systems (GIS), today’s most widely used digital-mapping technology.The planning and design firm that McHarg co-founded, now known as WRT, designed some of America’s most notable large-scale urban plans in the second half of the 20th century, including Baltimore’s Inner Harbor, the 1966 Lower Manhattan Master Plan, and the U.S. Capitol Master Plan in the 1980s, as well as The Woodlands, a planned suburb outside of Houston that straddles many creeks and lakes.McHarg’s greatest legacy might lie in the many minds he helped mold, whether through his early 1960s TV talk show “The House We Live In,†or via his popular courses at the University of Pennsylvania, whose landscape-architecture school he founded and led.
Economic Base Multiplier
Measures local economic growth as follows: EBM = TOTAL ECONOMIC ACTIVITY/BASIC SECTOR ACTIVITY. An EBM of 3, for example, would mean that for every basic job/output/dollar, three non-basic jobs/outputs/dollars are created
MPO
Metropolitan Planning Org, created by FHA of 1973. Carry out required transportation planning
Minor COllectors
Minor collectors have lower speeds and fewer signalized intersections as they serve lower-density residential and commercial areas.
Mixed Scanning
Mixed Scanning was described by Amitai Etzioni was a compromise between rational planning and incremental planning, as it views planning through a big picture and small picture. Etzioni introduced Mixed Scanning as a rational analysis of alternatives but with implementation completed incrementally. The theory acknowledges the differences between policy decisions and implementation decisions. For example, the development PLANNING CERTIFICATION Fundamental Planning Knowledge 13 of a comprehensive plan would be completed rationally; however, implementing the future land uses would be done incrementally.
Pedestrian shed
mixed use communities encourage more pedestrian activity than sprawled where destination exceed the desired shed
Federal-Aid Highway Acts, 1916 and 1921
Model for Subsequent Programs • Required States to form DOTs • First major inroad into transportation by the Federal Government •
THE CITY IN HISTORY
MUMFORD (1961) Mumford argues for a world not in which technology rules, but rather in which it achieves a balance with nature. His ideal vision is what can be described as an “organic city,” where culture is not usurped by technological innovation but rather thrives with it. Mumford contrasts these cities with those constructed around wars, tyrants, poverty, etc. However, the book is not an attack on the city, but rather an evaluation of its growth, how it came to be, and where it is heading, as evidenced by the final chapter “Retrospect and Prospect.”
Hazard Mitigation planning
National level: FEMA; Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000; FIRM Analysis, Publication, and Distribution; State level: PEMA; State Hazard Mitigation Plan Local level: County Hazard Mitigation Plan; Municipal mitigation projects; NFIP Participation
Trip Distribution
Nature of trips, distances, time, and cost of where ppl are going. Regions are divided into traffic zones and zones are analysed based on how many trips are made between each zone. Gravity model provids trip distribution estimates based on propotional attractiveness of each zone proportional to trip length.
Neighborhood planning
Neighborhood unit concept – Clarence Perry • Defined by history, geography, culture… • Access to services • Walkability and visitibility • 1996 Symposium on Neighborhood Collaborative Planning (from the APA Policy Guides)
National Environmental Policy Act (1969)
NEPA required that environmental impacts of projects be studied. Requires Enviornmental Assessment to devermin if there is a significant environmental impact as a result of a project. Can be ecological, cultural, historic or social. Requires EIS for federal projects affecting the quality to the uman environment
Resettlement Administration
New deal organization (FDR and Rex Tugwell)– that relocated struggling urban and rural families to communities planned by the federal government. Built greenbelt towns. The main focus of the RA was to now build relief camps in California for migratory workers, especially refugees from the drought-struck Dust Bowl of the Southwest.Greenbelt’s innovative design, based on both the garden cities of England and the late 1920s community of Radburn, New Jersey, features residential superblocks four to five times the size of a standard city block and homes with an unusual orientation. Service entries, normally considered back doors, faced the street and the garden side or front entries faced the interior of the block which was shared green space. This configuration provided access to walking paths that wound through the blocks and under roads via underpasses and which connected the homes to numerous parks and playgrounds, and to a town center. Greenbelt MC (near Washington DC) is one of three completed federal “green towns,†the others being Greendale, Wisconsin and Greenhills, Ohio. A fourth, planned for New Jersey, was never built. In 1997, Greenbelt’s innovative plan became a National Historic landmark.
Lawrence Veiller
New Law by Lawrence Veiller- outlawed dumbbell tenements in NY. required inspections and permits for construction and alterations and enforced new housing code. Required wide light and air between buildings, toilets and running water for each apartment. Also created tenement house department tasked with enforcing the regulations.
1975 – South Burlington County NAACP v Township of Mount Laurel I:
NJ Supreme court held that in developing municipalities in growing and expanding areas, provision must be made to accommodate a fair share of low and moderate income housing.
Minor Arterial
nterconnect principal arterials and provide less mobility as they distribute traffic to smaller areas.
1972 – Golden v Planning Board of the Town of Ramapo:
NY State Court of Appeals case that upheld a growth control plan based on the availability of public services. Case further emphasized the importance of the Comp Plan and set the scene for nationwide growth management plans.
First City to adopt zoning
NYC
Special Assessment
occur when a geographic area is designated and then assessed a special tax to fund an identified project or improvement that will only benefit the residents within the specific area
Grants
often issued through grant programs, grants are money that is issued to a recipient that have specific conditions or guidelines that must be followed while spending the money but there is no expectation that the recipient will return the money. Grants are available to all levels of government but they usually require matching funds from the receiving agency.
Tenement House Act of 1897
Old Law - Through NYC Hygiene of the Citizens Association campaign to improve housing and sanitation standards. required new tenements buildings to be constructed with narrow air shafts between structures, windows to the shafts, 2 toilets per floor, and 1 sq yard window in each room. 1st housing code that set standards for rooms. People took way too much advantage and it was literally shitty
Jr. Alfred Bettman
one of the key founders of modern urban planning. Zoning, as it is known today, can be attributed to his successful arguments before the U.S. Supreme Court, which resulted in the 1926 decision in favor of the Village of Euclid, Ohio versus Ambler Realty Company.
The concept of the “Comprehensive Plan,” as used in most cities across the U.S., was in no small part due to the work of Bettman and Ladislas Segoe on the “Cincinnati Plan.” (See City Plan for Cincinnati) Bettman also created the “Capital Improvements Budget.”
Homestead Act (1862)
Opened public land to settlers for a nominal fee and five years of residence. Signed by Lincoln after secession. Has turned over 10% of the country’s land area to private settlement. To claim land, had to be 21 or older, head of a household, live in the land, building a home, and farm for 5 years
Paul Lawrence
Organizational sociologist
Section B: Our Rules of Conduct
Our Rules of Conduct This section describes conflicts of interest, confidentiality requirements, and disclosures
Sustainability threats
Overconsumption v Population growth v Dependence on non- renewable resources v Pollution v Environmentally and socially destructive development patterns v Inequities in resource distribution v Limited public participation
Housing Act (1934)
Part of the New Deal passed during the Great Depression in order to make housing and home mortgages more affordable. It created the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC). hese policies had disparate impacts on Americans along segregated lines (see Redlining):Author Richard Rothstein says the housing programs begun under the New Deal were tantamount to a “state-sponsored system of segregation.”The government’s efforts were “primarily designed to provide housing to white, middle-class, lower-middle-class families,” he says. African-Americans and other people of color were left out of the new suburban communities — and pushed instead into urban housing projects.
Father of Regional Planning
Patrick Geddes
Father of Advocacy Planning
Paul Davidoff
Advocacy Planning
Paul Davidoff proposed Advocacy Planning in the 1960s as an attempt to represent the various interest groups within a community. Prior to this theory, planners operated on public interest, or the good of the whole. Now, planners would be quasi-lawyers, advocating for the interests of a particular group. Advocacy planning was in an effort to give voices to the underrepresented or disadvantaged. Davidoff believed that there was never one sole public interest so planners were forced to become advocates for special interests. But this approach resulted in unbalanced representation. Davidoff suggested planners should represent interest groups, rather than the whole community. This would result in plans that would represent the interest group’s values and objectives. A planner would still use rational or incremental approaches to planning, but advocacy planning changed who the planner would plan for.
Pay as you go
Pay-As-You-Go: one of the more common ways agencies finance capital improvement
PHV
Peak Hour Voumes- hourly traffic during peak period
Performance Based Budget
Performance-based budget: focuses on tying funding availability for projects and programs to set performance or evaluation measures. For example, improved performance for a certain activity or program will result in increased funding availability, especially if specific goals are met. This helps incentivize performance across a department and encourages the use of evaluation metrics. The downside of this method is that it is often complicated to prepare and it conveys an organization’s goals as quantitative evaluation metrics without incorporating quantitative results such as the improvement of quality of life for residents. Performance-based budgeting also requires a significant amount of data to complete, as it is necessary to include performance data on employee productivity and project outputs for all of the efforts across an organization. In the book The Practice of Local Government Planning, commonly referred to as “The Green Bible” and further detailed in our Significant People and Books in Planning resource, three types of performance-based budgeting are identified: Planning Programing Budgetary System (PPBS), Zero-Based Budgeting (ZBB), and the Dayton System.
Clarence Perry
Perry devised the neighbourhood unit plan, a residential community scheme disseminated through the Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs in 1929 that influenced planning in US cities.. neighborhood unit was mixed with garden city to create Radburn1) School should be in center so no child walked more than 1/4 mile to school and didn’t cross major roadways. School should have large play area entire community could use. should support 5-9k2) Major arterials are located along perimeter to eliminate through traffic3) Internal streets to be curvilinear for aesthetic and safety concerns, discourage through traffic and non local intrusion4) Local shopping along neighborhood’s perimeter or at main entrance5) at least 10% of land area dedicated to parks or open space
Planning and Programming Budgetary System
Planning, Programming, Budgeting Systems (PPBS): is a budgeting method that is most similar to the standard performance-based method in that it focuses on funding allocation for programs and projects that work towards accomplishing the goals set forth by the agency. While this method allows for an evaluation of a programs performance in achieving departmental goals, it is a method that is not commonly used because it is difficult to prepare and requires significant data.
National growth share
portion of local growth due to growth in the national economy
Shy zone
portion of the sidewalk along roadway that pedestrians tend to avoice
Trip assignment
predicts where congestion is going to be using modes of traffic distribution on each roadway hourly. If peak volumes or hourly traffic expected is greater than capacity, get congestion
Ways to preserve historic properties/districts
Preservation • Arts Districts • Library Centers • Adaptive Reuse • Demolition Delay
Federal Aid Highway Act (1956)
President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law. With an original authorization of $25 billion (equivalent to $207 billion in 2022)[1] for the construction of 41,000 miles (66,000 km) of the Interstate Highway System over a 10-year period, it was the largest public works project in American history through that time
Housing & Community Development Act, 1974
primarily by creating the Section 8 housing program, which provides rental assistance to low-income individuals and families, and establishing the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) program that allows communities to receive funding for various housing and community development projects; it is considered a major piece of legislation aimed at addressing housing needs in the United States.
Key points about the Housing and Community Development Act of 1974:
Section 8 Housing:
This program, introduced by the Act, is a key component of affordable housing in the US, offering rental assistance vouchers to low-income families to help them rent privately owned housing.
Community Development Block Grants (CDBG):
This program provides federal funding to cities, counties, and states to support community development activities like housing rehabilitation, economic development, and infrastructure improvements.
Citizen Participation:
The Act emphasizes the importance of citizen involvement in the planning and decision-making processes related to community development projects.
Impact on Public Housing:
The Act marked a shift away from solely constructing public housing projects, moving towards a more market-based approach with rental assistance programs like Section 8.
Principle Arterial
Principal arterials serve larger activity centers, have the highest traffic volume and vehicle miles traveled, and serve longer trips.
Preservation
protection of buildings, objects, or landscapes (i.e. historic preservation)
Conservation
protection of natural resources
Housing Act of 1959
Provided federal matching grants for comprehensive planning effort to higher level governments (MPOs, state, region etc). Offered subsidies to nonprofits and public agencies to construct public housing for rent
Ordinance of 1785
provided for the rectangular land survey and settlement of the Old Northwest. e.g., growth and development of
places over time, role of
transportation in shaping urban
form, cultural influences on the
form of places township = 36 sq mile of territory, 36 sections; each section = 640 acres, one square mile; used lat/long
Morrill Act (1862)
provided land grants for public domain to the states–each state recieved 30,000 acres of public land for each senator and house rep. Land was then sold and proceeds from sales to fund agricultural and mechanical schools for each state. Provided strong foundation for higher education from the government and shifted to applied studies instead of classics.
Serviceman’s Readjustment Act (1944)
provided World War II veterans with funds for college education, unemployment insurance, and housing. Benefits included low-cost mortgages, low-interest loans to start a business or farm, one year of unemployment compensation, and dedicated payments of tuition and living expenses to attend high school, college, or vocational school. An important provision of the G.I. Bill was low interest, zero down payment home loans for servicemen, with more favorable terms for new construction compared to existing housing. This encouraged millions of American families to move out of urban apartments and into suburban homes.
Rachel Carson
Published Silent Spring in 1962, studied dangers of chemical pesticides like DDC. Became influence on environmental planning. Inspired the EPA, established by Nixon in 1970. Tasked with conducting environmental assessments and enforcing env. Laws
Utopianism
Pursuit of a community of society that has perfect qualities and is designed in such a way that the citizens do not have any problems. Plan for Chicago and Broadacre City (Frank Lloyd Wright) are examples.
Location Quotient
Quantifies export activity in an industry. Commonly used, relatively easy to find data and calculate. Usually uses employment data (output or income can also be used)
Radical Planning
Radical Planning: John Friedmann published another book in 1987, this time called “Planning in the Public Domain: From Knowledge to Action” where he introduces the concept of radical planning. Radical planning is a theory that takes power away from the government and instead empowers the people. Radical Planning shuns bureaucracy and centralized planning and believes planning is most effective when common citizens are empowered to solve their own problems. Friedmann’s ultimate outcome are a series of collective actions that result in self-reliance. Citizens get together and develop their own PLANNING CERTIFICATION Fundamental Planning Knowledge 14 plans; however, this theory was nearly impossible to implement as John Friedmann theorized. There is no structure that allows individuals or groups to develop and implement plans outside of the government.
Cities that implemented an AFPO
Ramapo, NY, Petaluma, CA, and Boulder CO. Ramapo required public infrastructure to be a requirement for development permit issuance.
Rational Planning
Rational Planning was a dominant theory in the 1950s and assumes a planner has perfect knowledge of all the factors in a situation. In this theory of a practice, a planner evaluates the alternatives and is not constrained by time and money limitations. However, we know this can never be true as humans are imperfect. Instead, planners must satisfice. Rational planning is not well applied when “wicked” problems exist. Wicked problems are issues that are complicated and difficult to solve. One example is homelessness, because the issue does not have a single root cause and one alternative could not eliminate the problem. Further, rational planning is supposed to be value-free, meaning that goals are based on the public interest (the good of the whole community). If there is no consensus on an issue, it is difficult to determine the public interest. Therefore, rational planning is best used when a problem is easily defined and there can be a “best” solution applied. While it is impractical for larger issues, planners utilize the theory often by completing the following steps during a planning process: HERBERT SIMON DEVELOPED THE PRINCIPLE THAT THE HUMAN MIND IS LIMITED IN ITS ABILITY TO SOLVE PROBLEMS, SO INSTEAD WE CHOOSE ALTERNATIVES THAT ARE GOOD ENOUGH. SIDE NOTE 1. Set Goals 2.Determine Alternatives 3. Evaluate Alternatives 4.Choose an Alternative 5. Implement Alternative 6. Evaluate the Results
Marshall Plan (1947)
reconstruction of Europe after WW2, provided $15b to rebuild cities, industries and infrastructure damaged by WW2. Encouraged commerce between Europe and USA by removing trade barriers.
Access controls
refer to a users ability to access a roadway, which is controlled to eliminate conflict points, driveway cuts, and at-grade intersections. More access control, the higher the travel speeds. Less access control, the slower speed.
Frederick Law Olmstead Sr.
Regarded as the founder of American landscape architecture, Frederick Law Olmsted (1822–1903) is best known for designing the grounds of New York City’s Central Park, the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., the Biltmore Estate in North Carolina and the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
Transportation Planning focus for regions vs neighborhood
Regions - entire metropolitan area or corridors, neighborhoods looking at specifc sites and impacts of those areas
Symptomatic Methods:
Regression analysis can be used for small areas.
Taylor Grazing Act (1934)
regulated the use of the range in the west for conservation and decreased the amount of land available for homesteading out west. Act used to address increasing erosion of land resulting from grazing and was an attempt to organize grazing on public land.
Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT)
related to topography, density, mass transit options, and distance to daily destinations (live, work, play). Higher VMT signifies origins and destinations are getting farther apart and there are fewer transit options. Denser areas have higher VMTs
Transactive planning
relies on face to face dialogue between planners and public. Assumes various interests exist, that dialogue triggers a learning process. Planning is carried out decentrally, but participation takes time
Environmental Impact Assessment process
Required by NEPA. Start with Environmental Assessment, if determins there’s a significan impact eco, cultural, historic or social, need to do an EIS for any federal project affecting the quality of the environment. If assessment finds will not have significan impact, FONSI is filed.
Funding from federal government for communities
requires a consolidated plan - through collaborative process where community members set vision for development. Should also account for local assets in coordinated manner that considers economic and physical development. Plan must- identify housing, homeless and community development needs- establish priorities and strategies to address planConsolidated because consolidated application between different grants and housing programs
Reserve Funds
Reserve Funds: these are funds that have been saved for the purpose of purchasing capital improvements that either cannot be accommodated in the current budget or for emergency purposes
1978 – Penn Central Transportation Company v The City of New York:
Restrictions on the development of Grand Central Station did NOT amount to a taking, since Penn Central could use TDR and secure a reasonable return on the property. Validated historic preservation controls.
Guy Tugwell
Rexford “Guy” Tugwell was the head of the Resettlement Administration and a member of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s “brains trust.” He worked on greenbelt city programs during Resettlement and later went on to serve as governor of Puerto Rico.
Edgeless Cities
Robert Lang (2002)- large, isolated suburban office complexes sprawling from urban environmens. Typically not accessible by transit or pedestrian friendly.
James Rouse
Rousted up dying downtowns and creating malls for young roustabouts (you see that?)Rouse is responsible for the development of Columbia, Maryland in the 1960s. Prior to that, he pioneered indoor shopping malls in the 1950s and festival marketplaces into dying downtowns like Inner Harbor in Baltimore or South Street Seaport in New York.
1980 – Agins v. City of Tiburon:
Ruled there is a takings when 1st, deprives property of all economically viable use; and 2nd, when it fails to enhance a legitimate government interest. Court found that the Open Space ZO of Tiburon does NOT result in a taking w/o just compensation.
1968 – Jones v Mayer:
Ruling that discrimination in selling houses was not permitted based on the 13th Amendment and Section 1982 abolishing slavery and creating equality for all US citizens.
Force field analysis
s a variation of a simple brainstorming exercise, a force field analysis presents a set of alternatives for policies or programs to a group of stakeholders and requires that they determine what they like and dislike about each one. With a list of likes and dislikes about a particular alternative, the group then prioritizes the dislikes about the first alternative and determines how they would overcome the ones with the highest priority.
2002 – Tahoe-Sierra Preservation Council v Tahoe Regional Planning Agency:
Sanctioned the use of moratoria & reaffirmed the “parcel-as-a-whole” rule for takings review. Moratoria on development not a per se taking under the 5th amendment, but should be analyzed under the multi-factor Penn Central test.
Colonial Street System
Savannah GA development (1773) General Oglethorpe laid out city in a series of grids, wide open streets and public squares. Squares would be meeting places. Considered first planned city, still generally the same.
1985 – City of Cleburne v Cleburne Living Center:
SC decision which ruled that the City had illegally denied group homes special use permits based on neighbor’s unfounded fears.
1922 – Pennsylvania Coal Company v Mahon:
SC indicated for the first time that a regulation of land use might be a taking if it goes too far.
2005 – City of Rancho Palos Verde v Abrams:
SC ruled that a licensed radio operator who was denied a CUP for a “commercial” antenna cannot seek monetary damages because it would distort the congressional intent of the Telecommunications Act of 1996.
1994 – City of Ladue v Gilleo:
SC ruled that the display of a sign by a homeowner was protected by the 1st amendment under freedom of speech. v
1915 – Hadacheck v Sebastian:
SC upheld Los Angeles case prohibiting establishment of a brick kiln within a recently-annexed 3-mile area.
1974 – Village of Belle Terre v Boraas:
SC upheld the restrictive definition of a family as being no more than two unrelated people living together.
Types of Institutions
Schools, Prisons, Hospitals, Military Bases
Charles Lindblom
Science of Muddling Through, Incrimentalism,–Incrementalism emphasizes the amelioration of concrete problems rather than the pursuit of abstract ideals such as social justice. Affected publics bring problems to government through a process Lindblom termed the social fragmentation of analysis.Dec 20, 2024
SHV
Seasonal Hourly Volumes- peak period volumes during different seasons
Section 106
Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (NHPA) requires Federal agencies to take into account the effects of their undertakings on historic properties, and give the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) a reasonable opportunity to comment. This is achieved by following the 4 step process outlined in 36 CFR Part 800.
The section 106 process seeks to accommodate historic preservation concerns with the needs of Federal undertakings through consultation among the agency official and other parties with an interest in the effects of the undertaking on historic properties, commencing at the early stages of project planning. The goal of consultation is to identify historic properties potentially affected by the undertaking, assess its effects and seek ways to avoid, minimize or mitigate any adverse effects on historic properties.
Major collectors
serve both land access and traffic circulation in commercial and higher density residential areas. Higher speeds and more signalized intersections
Principle Arterial
Serve larger activity centers, have the highest traffic volume and VMT, serve longer trips
ROBERT MOSES
served as NYC Parks commissioner, head of state parks council, head of the state power commission, and chairman of the triborough bridge and tunnel authority. Built over 400 miles of parkways, 150,000 housing units, 13 bridges, and 600 playgrounds, but often displaced the poor to make room for middle income housing. Stopped from building a cross-Manhattan roadway by Jacob’s book “Death and Life of Great American Cities. Robert Moses (1888–1981) left his mark on New York City, Long Island, and Westchester County, New York, during the mid 20th century. Although never elected to public office, he was considered one of the most powerful persons in New York State government from the 1930s to the 1950s. He was chief in the design and construction of more than 400 miles of parkways, the Triborough Bridge, and Jones Beach, the world’s largest public bathing beach.Like Baron Haussmann, Moses presided over the transformation of a great city without ever holding elected office, embodying a top-down, authoritarian approach to urban planning. From the 1920s to the late 1960s, he held a diverse array of roles, often simultaneously, including parks commissioner for New York City and Long Island, New York City planning commissioner, and head of the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority.In addition to expanding and improving numerous parks in the New York City area, he used his powers to build an extensive parkway system, which eventually came to be seen as among the nation’s first freeways. Moses took particular pride in replacing the “Valley of Ashes,†referenced in The Great Gatsby, with Flushing Meadows, home of the 1939 and 1964 World’s Fairs. The Housing Act of 1949 gave Moses broad authority to engage in “slum clearance†for large-scale public housing projects as well as civic projects like Lincoln Center and the UN headquarters. In all, Moses was responsible for the construction of 13 bridges, 416 miles of parkways, and 150,000 housing units in greater New York City.But Moses also displaced 250,000 people during highway construction alone, according to his biographer Robert Caro. Moses’s Cross-Bronx expressway, in particular, was a notorious example of urban-renewal-era freeway building. The direct displacement and neighborhood fragmentation of that megaproject, which lasted from 1948 to 1972, played a major role in the economic decline of the Bronx.Moses was known as a bigot, and many of his most disruptive projects targeted low-income, minority areas. His philosophy of urban planning was no more sensitive: “When you operate in an overbuilt metropolis, you have to hack your way with a meat axe,†goes on of his maxims. Especially next to Jane Jacobs, against whom he is often pitted, Moses can look like a cartoonish villain. But his impact on the cityscape of New York was enormous, and many of his projects remain heavily used and beloved to this day.In an age of endless community engagement and discretionary review, some contemporary planners are wont to view his broad powers with envy. “Paradoxically, what is most needed to achieve Jane Jacobs’s vision is to deploy a Robert Moses strategy—redesigning our streets quickly and decisively for an increasingly urban age, this time committed to accommodating population growth and offering residents more options for getting around without a car,†planners Janette Sadik-Khan and Seth Solomonow recently wrote in CityLab.
Housing Act of 1954
Set new targets for public housing and targeted slum prevention and urban renewal (not clearance). Provided funding for smaller cities, gave Section 701 funds to help cities create comp plans, zoning and subdivision ordinances. 1st to offer money to rehouse families displaced by urban renewal.
Origin Destination Survey
sets up roadblocks along major corridors and asks people about origin (where from) and destination (where to)
Trip Generation rate: which is higher SFR vs apartment
SFR is 9.1-10.2 trips per day, apartment is 6 trips per day
1972 - Just v Marinette County:
Significantly integrated public trust theories into a modern regulatory scheme. Shoreland zoning ordinance along navigable streams and other water bodies upheld.
Housing Units Methods:
Similar to extrapolation but good at a local level.
Mediation
similar to facilitation, the mediation process involves a neutral third party leading discussion between conflicting parties in a structured process to reach an agreement that is satisfactory to both sides. The mediator in this process is tasked with identifying the priorities of each of the conflicting parties and leading the discussion towards an agreement that outlines specific solutions based on those priorities. This process is typically used to resolve disputes without using the court system.
Sir Raymond Unwin
Sir Raymond Unwin was an English town planner. He and Richard Barry Parker designed Letchworth, a neighborhood based on Ebenezer Howard’s Utopian plan. They later went on to plan the new garden suburb at Hampstead, now known as Hampstead Garden Suburb.The first Garden City was constructed in Letchworth in 1903. A second English Garden City was Hampstead, which was where cul-de-sacs were invented. Both communitieswere designed by Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker. However, in reality, no Garden Citywas even truly self-contained and eventually became residential subdivisions.
Smart Growth
Smart growth is a planning and transportation theory that aims to create sustainable communities. It involves using existing resources and infrastructure efficiently to reduce pollution and create more attractive, economically stronger communities.
What does smart growth involve?
Compact development: Concentrating growth in walkable urban centers to avoid sprawl
Mixed use: Encouraging a mix of building types and uses
Diverse housing: Providing a variety of housing options
Community engagement: Involving the community in the development process
Efficient use of resources: Using existing infrastructure and resources more efficiently
Preserving open space: Preserving farmland and open space
Improving transportation: Providing better access to public transportation
Benefits of smart growth
Economic strength: Creating stronger tax bases
Social diversity: Creating more attractive, economically stronger, and socially diverse communities
Climate resilience: Making communities more resilient to climate change
Reduced pollution: Reducing pollution by using resources more efficiently
Better access to services: Providing better access to critical services such as public transportation
Organizations that support smart growth
Smart Growth America: An advocacy organization that promotes smart growth strategies
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: An agency that provides tools and strategies for smart growth
American Planning Association: An association that supports the development of mixed use, mixed income communities
Edwin Chadwick
social reformer looked at life expectancy between those in towns and those in countryside. Established public health admin addressing drainage, garbage, sewage, and housing. Determined that health was a legitimate public interest
Special Assessment
Special Assessments: occur when a geographic area is designated and then assessed a special tax to fund an identified project or improvement that will only benefit the residents within the specific area.
Hawaii HousingAuthority v. Midkiff
Special case of taking to eliminate an oligopoly
Complete street
street that is safe, convenient, and accessible for all individuals–ages, ability and mode.
Types of CIP projects
Streets § Water § Sewer § Parks § Public facilities § Drainage
Synoptic Pop estimates
Surveillance of the few by the many
Types of Planning
Synoptic Rationality vIncremental (Lindbloom) vTransactive vAdvocacy (Davidoff) vRadical vUtopianism vRational Planning
Tax Increment Financing
Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a program that allows local governments to fund development projects in specific areas. TIF uses increased property taxes from the developed area to pay off the project’s costs.
How it works
A local government designates an area as a Tax Increment Reinvestment Zone (TIRZ)
The government issues bonds to fund the project
The government collects property taxes from the area
The increased property taxes are used to pay off the bonds and fund the project
Why it’s used
TIF can help revitalize areas that are unsafe, economically stagnant, or poorly planned
TIF can encourage private investment in an area
TIF can help create jobs and spur economic growth
Tax Increment FInancing
Tax Increment Financing (TIF): this financing method involves using revenue earned from increased tax on a specific area within a jurisdiction that has been redeveloped to pay back the bond used to finance capital improvements made in the designated area. This method is used to improve areas with significant blight through targeted infrastructure improvements that eventually spur redevelopment in the area. As the property values in the area increases, the property tax applied to the area is reassessed which results in additional revenue to the jurisdiction which must be used to pay back the bonds used to finance the initial improvements
Cohort Component (aka Cohort Survival)
Technically complicated, lots of data, good for large area projections like states or large metropolitan areas.
Technocratic Planning
Technocratic planning is a model of governance that emphasizes technical expertise and background1. It involves the development of a balanced policy and program planning model based on connectivity, risk, and performance which are linked2. Technocracy is a system of planning and rational order in which society would specify its needs and organize the factors of production to achieve them3. In most governments worldwide, technocrats are selected to head key departments that require specialized skills and experts4.
Grid streets
tend to lead to cut-through traffic, high costs, and more conflict points.
Housing and Community Development Act of 1977
terminated funding for local comp plans through 1951 housing act. Created UDAG
1939 Sector Theory - Homer Hoyt
The “1939 Sector Theory” refers to a model of urban land use development proposed by economist Homer Hoyt in 1939, which is often called the “Hoyt Sector Model” and describes cities as expanding outward in pie-shaped sectors along transportation routes, with different land uses like residential areas of varying income levels occupying distinct sectors radiating from the city center.
Key points about the Hoyt Sector Theory:
Focus on Transportation:
Unlike earlier models, Hoyt emphasized the role of transportation corridors, like major roads and railways, in shaping urban development and influencing where different land uses would locate.
Sectoral Pattern:
The theory suggests that cities grow in “sectors” - wedge-shaped areas extending outwards from the central business district, with each sector containing a dominant land use like high-class residential, industrial, or low-income housing.
Socioeconomic Differentiation:
Hoyt’s model highlights how different socioeconomic groups tend to cluster within specific sectors based on their access to transportation and desired amenities.
Criticisms of the Hoyt Sector Model:
Oversimplification:
Critics argue that the model may not accurately represent the complex and dynamic nature of urban development in all cities, especially in the age of car-based transportation.
Limited Applicability:
Some argue that the model may not apply well to cities with unique geographic features or transportation networks that significantly deviate from a radial pattern.
1964 Urban Realm - Vance v
The “1964 Urban Realm” refers to the “Urban Realms Model” developed by geographer James E. Vance in 1964, which describes a city as composed of multiple, semi-autonomous “realms” - essentially smaller urban areas with their own centers, each functioning somewhat independently but interconnected through transportation routes, primarily driven by the rise of suburbanization and car-dependent living.
Clean Water Act, 1972
The “Clean Water Act of 1972” refers to a federal law in the United States that establishes the primary framework for regulating water pollution, aiming to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters; it was officially enacted on October 18, 1972, and is also known as the “Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972”.
Key points about the Clean Water Act:
Main goal:
To control the discharge of pollutants into the waters of the United States, including setting standards for water quality and regulating point sources of pollution like industrial facilities and sewage treatment plants.
Governing agency:
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) primarily administers the Clean Water Act, working in collaboration with state governments.
Key provisions:
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): Requires permits for any point source discharge of pollutants into surface waters.
Water quality standards: States are responsible for setting water quality standards based on designated uses like swimming, fishing, and drinking water.
Section 404 permitting: Regulates the discharge of dredged or fill material into wetlands.
1987 Growth Machine Theory - Harvey and Molotch
The “Growth Machine Theory” of 1987, primarily attributed to sociologist Harvey Molotch, describes how cities are often operated as instruments for economic growth by a powerful coalition of local elites, including developers, real estate agents, and business leaders, who prioritize increasing land value and personal profit over the needs of the broader community, essentially turning the city into a “growth machine” to further their own interests.
Key points about the Growth Machine Theory:
Central Actors:
The “growth coalition” consists of individuals with a vested interest in land development, like real estate developers, bankers, and politicians, who actively work together to promote growth policies.
Goal of Growth:
The primary objective of this coalition is to maximize land value by promoting development projects, often at the expense of community needs like affordable housing or environmental concerns.
Political Manipulation:
This elite group uses their influence to manipulate local government policies, zoning regulations, and public funding to facilitate their desired development projects.
Impact on Communities:
The Growth Machine Theory argues that this focus on economic growth can lead to negative consequences for residents, including displacement, gentrification, and unequal distribution of benefits from development.
1990s Smart Growth / Sustainability
The “Smart Growth” movement, which focused on promoting sustainable and environmentally conscious urban development practices, gained significant momentum in the 1990s, with key organizations like the American Planning Association (APA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) actively promoting its principles, which aimed to combat urban sprawl by encouraging compact development, mixed land uses, walkable neighborhoods, and diverse housing options.
1909 PLAN OF CHICAGO
The 1909 Plan of Chicago, also commonly referred to as the “Burnham Plan,” was a visionary Progressive Era proposal that sought to beautify Chicago and improve efficiency of commerce. Published through the support of the Commercial Club of Chicago, the plan used renderings to convey the possible scenarios for a rapidly growing city. Although many of its aspirational ideas never became reality, as a document, the Plan of Chicago continues to serve as a reference in urban design today. Beginning in 1906, a group of businessmen recognized the need to prepare a plan for Chicago’s growth and entrusted architect Daniel Burnham to develop a plan to address Chicago’s needs. Already famous for his role as Director of Works for the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Daniel Burnham famously affirmed that Chicago should “make no little plans†for its future. He hired co-author Edward H. Bennett, then the two began their work.Over the course of nearly three years, Burnham and Bennett researched numerous cities around the world. They studied how the growth of these cities and how large-scale infrastructure influenced the economy and mobility of their inhabitants. As a result, the Plan of Chicago was broken down into six categories and focused on the economic, transportation and social needs of Chicagoans.The six categories, as laid out by Burnham and Bennett in the final chapter of the Plan of Chicago, are as follows:The improvement of the lake front.The creation of a system of highways outside the city.The improvement of railway terminals, and the development of a complete traction system for both freight and passengers.The acquisition of an outer park system, and of parkway circuits.The systematic arrangement of the streets and avenues within the city, in order to facilitate the movement to and from the business district.The development of centers of intellectual life and of civic administration, so related as to give coherence and unity to the city.While these principle design elements provided a plan for Chicago, Burnham and Bennett’s plan did not immediately change the city. The plan was presented to the City Council of Chicago in July 1909. The council created a planning commission by November of that year with Mayor Fred A. Busse appointing Charles H. Wacker as permanent chair of the commission. Projects such as the widening of Chicago’s streets and boulevards took shape over the next few decades. New streets were introduced, such as Wacker Drive along the Chicago River. One of the most noticeable portions of the plan to come to fruition is the city’s 25 miles of lakefront (out of its 29 miles of lakeshore) that serve as public parkland.Although many of Burnham’s other initiatives were not directly implemented, the Plan of Chicago did have a profound impact on city planning. Burnham and Bennett wrote in its closing, “If, therefore, the plan is a good one, its adoption and realization will produce for us conditions in which business enterprises can be carried on with the utmost economy.†While the Plan of Chicago will never be fully realized, it continues to provide solutions and possibilities for the ever-changing Chicago—and for other cities around the globe.
Housing Act (1954)
The 1954 Act provided funding for 140,000 units of public housing, giving preferential treatment to families that would be relocated for slum eradication or revitalization. In 1965, federal housing programs came under the purview of the new United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). If you are in a small- to mid-size community, chances are that planning began with a Housing and Urban Development (HUD) 701 grant made to your community between 1954 and 1981. If your city did not receive a 701 grant directly, it may have participated in a council of government (or similar association of local governments) that prepared comprehensive plans using 701 funds. Even if this assistance did not reach your community directly or indirectly, your community may have emulated those communities that had their plans financed by 701 by developing plans with other grants or its own funds.
2006 - Rapanos v. United States:
The Army Corp of Engineers must determine whether there is a significant nexus between a wetland and a navigable waterway. This pulled back the ACOE’s jurisdiction regarding wetlands.
City Efficient Movement – 1920s Standardization (SSZEA/SCPEA)
The basic foundation for planning and zoning in the U.S. was laid by two standard state enabling acts published by the U.S. Department of Commerce in the 1920s. For many states, the Standard Acts, as they are known, still supply the institutional structure, although some procedural and substantive components may have changed.
City Functional Movement - 1940s
The City Functional movement was a prominent urban planning movement in the 1940s that focused on efficiency and functionalism. It was influenced by the Modernist Movement of the 1930s, which called for architecture that would improve the health and well-being of its inhabitants.
Key ideas
Functionalism: The idea that cities should be rational and healthy, with large-scale areas dedicated to single functions
Administrative efficiency: The idea that planning should be closely integrated with local government
Human proportions: The idea that urban design should be based on human proportions
City Humane Movement 1930s – New Deal
The City Humane movement was a social policy that focused on housing and jobs in the 1930s after the Great Depression. The movement built experimental Greenbelt Towns based on the ideas of Ebenezer Howard.
What did the City Humane movement do?
Built Greenbelt Towns, which were suburban towns planned in advance and surrounded by agricultural land
Focused on social policy issues like jobs and housing
What other housing and urban renewal efforts happened in the 1930s?
Congress passed a series of housing acts that funded public housing, slum clearance, and urban renewal
The City Functional movement focused on administrative efficiency and functionalism
Clean Air Act, 1963
The Clean Air Act of 1963 was the first federal law in the United States to address air pollution. It is a key environmental law that aims to reduce and control air pollution across the country.
What did the Clean Air Act of 1963 do?
Established a federal program to monitor and control air pollution
Authorized research into air pollution control techniques
Defined the role of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in regulating air quality
Established National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for common air pollutants
What are the goals of the Clean Air Act? Reduce exposure to hazardous air pollutants, Protect visibility in natural areas, Reduce emissions that cause acid rain, and Protect human health and the environment.
Spectrum Act
The collocation of wireless communication facilities
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation & Liability Act, 1980
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act – otherwise known as CERCLA or Superfund – provides a Federal “Superfund” to clean up uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous-waste sites as well as accidents, spills, and other emergency releases of pollutants and contaminants into the environment.
Ernest Burgess
The concentric zone model, also known as the Burgess model or the CCD model, is one of the earliest theoretical models to explain urban social structures.
Nectow v City of Cambridge
The Court used a rational basis test to strike down a zoning ordinance that rezoned an owner’s land because it had no valid public purpose. Governments do not have unlimited power to restrict the rights of landowners if the regulation does not serve a public purpose.
Dayton System (Problem Strategies)
The Dayton System: is a combination of PBBS and ZBB, and is more commonly used than either, especially by larger jurisdictions. This simplified method involves listing an agency’s programs as rows on a budgeting spreadsheet that also includes various columns that identify program characteristics, such as the allocated funding for the program from previous years, the required staff time, and the proposed funding allocation for the current reporting period
Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000
The Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000 (DMA 2000) is a federal law that requires state and local governments to create plans to reduce the risk of disasters. The DMA 2000 also aims to make federal disaster relief programs more efficient.
Le Corbusier, 1887-1965
The early days of Modernist architecture and planning were heady times, and no one embodied them more than Le Corbusier (born in Switzerland as Charles-Édouard Jeanneret). His Five Points of Architecture helped spur a revolution in design, enabled by the new material of reinforced concrete. Two of the “points†in his manifesto were an open floor plan—because concrete supporting columns made internal load-bearing walls unnecessary—and a “free†facade, or exterior walls that were not load-bearing, either, so could be designed as the architect wished. The new approach is exemplified by the Villa Savoye, a ribbon-windowed house set on slender piloti, or concrete piers. Le Corbusier played a major role in the emergence of the International Style, which became very popular for high-rise office buildings at midcentury.As early as 1922, Le Corbusier agitated for the wholesale demolition of old cities and their replacement by rational superblocks of high-rise offices and apartment buildings. Although his Plan Voisin to reconstruct Paris was never implemented, the “towers in the park†model proved influential from the Soviet bloc to American public housing projects such as Pruitt-Igoe in St. Louis. Corbusier’s plan for Chandigarh, India—the only one of his urban plans ever executed on a significant scale—is notable for its monumental civic buildings and broad boulevards.Le Corbusier’s ideas for cities have received plenty of criticism. But the architectural genius of works like the Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France, is in no doubt. His raw-concrete Unité d’Habitation in Marseille inspired the Brutalist movement in architecture and utopian social-housing projects around the world.
Industry Mix
The effect of industry trends on local employment
Endangered Species Act, 1973
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 significantly impacts planning by requiring developers and government agencies to consider the potential impact of their projects on listed endangered and threatened species, often necessitating modifications to plans to avoid harming critical habitat and leading to extensive consultation processes with wildlife agencies before undertaking any development in areas where protected species reside; this can result in project delays and adjustments to design to minimize negative effects on endangered species.
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, 1948
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 was the first major law in the United States to address water pollution. It was passed in response to rapid industrial and urban growth after World War II.
What did the act do?
Authorized the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service to create programs to reduce pollution in interstate waters
Authorized the Federal Works Administrator to help states build treatment plants to prevent sewage and other waste from entering interstate waters
What happened in 1972?
The act was amended and became known as the Clean Water Act (CWA)
The CWA established the basic structure for regulating pollutant discharges into US waters
The CWA gave the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to implement pollution control programs
What does the CWA do today?
Regulates the quality of surface waters
Regulates the discharge of dredged and fill material into waters of the United States
Protects human health, supports economic and recreational activities, and provides habitat for fish, plants, and wildlife
James Howard Kunstler
The Geography of Nowhere (1994), a history of American suburbia and urban development, The Long Emergency (2005), and Too Much Magic (2012). In The Long Emergency he imagines peak oil and oil depletion resulting in the end of industrialized society, forcing Americans to live in smaller-scale, localized, agrarian (or semi-agrarian) communities
Housing Acts of 1934 and 1937
The Housing Act of 1934 and the Housing Act of 1937 were both New Deal programs that expanded housing opportunities for Americans. The 1934 act established the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), while the 1937 act created the United States Housing Authority (USHA).
Housing Act of 1934
Created the FHA to help first-time homebuyers
Provided government-backed loans to stimulate the construction industry
Helped make homeownership more accessible to middle- and working-class Americans
Housing Act of 1937
Established the USHA to oversee public housing
Provided federal subsidies to local housing authorities to build public housing
Empowered the FHA to clean up slum areas
Housing Acts of 1949 and 1954
The Housing Act of 1949 and the Housing Act of 1954 were both pieces of legislation that expanded federal involvement in housing. The 1954 act amended the 1949 act, shifting the focus from new construction to the preservation of existing housing.
Housing Act of 1949
Established a national housing policy
Authorized federal loans, grants, and advances to help clear slums and redevelop urban areas
Expanded the public housing program
Increased the FHA mortgage insurance program for non-defense housing
Housing Act of 1954
Amended the National Housing Act of 1934
Provided funding for public housing
Gave priority to families displaced by slum clearance or revitalization
Introduced the term “urban renewal”
Housing & Urban Development Act, 1965
The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 was a law that expanded federal housing programs and created the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the act on August 10, 1965.
Goals
Improve living conditions in urban areas
Provide housing assistance to low- and moderate-income families
Promote orderly urban development
Actions
Increased funding for existing housing programs
Created new programs for rent subsidies, housing rehabilitation, and mortgages for veterans
Established HUD as a cabinet-level agency to coordinate federal housing programs
Created a leased housing program to make privately owned housing available to low-income families
Provided matching grants to localities for community centers, water and sewer facilities, and urban beautification
Impact
The act was a major revision to federal housing policy and was intended to give urban interests a voice in federal housing policy.
National Environmental Policy Act, 1970
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was signed into law on January 1, 1970. It was the first major environmental law in the United States. NEPA requires federal agencies to consider the environmental impact of their actions before making decisions.
What does NEPA do?
Establishes a national environmental policy
NEPA’s goal is to promote harmony between people and the environment.
Requires environmental impact assessments
Federal agencies must assess the environmental impact of their actions, including social and economic effects.
Establishes the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ)
The CEQ advises agencies on the NEPA process and develops federal environmental policy.
Involves the public
Agencies must provide opportunities for the public to review and comment on their environmental impact assessments.
What actions does NEPA apply to?
Permit applications
Federal land management actions
Construction of highways and other public facilities
Airports
Buildings
Military complexes
Parkland purchases
Tenement Housing Law, 1901
The New York State Tenement House Act of 1901 was a law that improved the living conditions in tenement housing in New York City. It was part of the Progressive Era and was one of the first laws of its kind in the United States.
What did the law do?
Banned windowless interior living spaces
Required new buildings to have indoor bathrooms
Required new buildings to have improved lighting
Required new buildings to have fire safeguards
Required new buildings to have proper air ventilation
Required new buildings to have outward-facing windows in every room
Required new buildings to have an open courtyard
Set minimum size requirements for tenement housing
How did the law come about?
The New York State legislature created the Tenement House Committee in 1894 to examine tenement housing conditions
The committee’s work led to the passage of the 1901 law
What was the impact of the law?
The law dramatically improved tenement conditions
The law made it mandatory for tenements to have indoor plumbing, ventilation, and fireproofing
NY Tenement House Law
The New York State Tenement House Act of 1901, or “New Tenement Law,” was a housing reform law aimed at improving living conditions in New York’s tenement buildings. Technically a tenement was any building that housed three or more families, but the term had come to mean housing for poor families that lacked proper amenities. The law set requirements for new buildings to improve light and air quality for residents, including external-facing windows in each room, an open courtyard, improved ventilation, indoor toilets, and better fire safety. 1901
Public Health Movement - Late 1800s to 1920
The public health movement in the late 1800s to 1920s was a period of reform that aimed to improve the health of the public. This movement was characterized by a shared understanding of the causes of disease and the need for sweeping action to promote public health.
Resource Conservation & Recovery Act, 1973
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) gives EPA the authority to control hazardous waste from cradle to grave. This includes the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste.
Tax Reform Act of 1986
The Tax Reform Act of 1986 was the top domestic priority of President Reagan’s second term. The act lowered federal income tax rates, decreasing the number of tax brackets and reducing the top tax rate from 50 percent to 28 percent.
Tenement Housing Law 1867
The Tenement House Act of 1867 was the first law in New York State that regulated tenement housing. The law defined a tenement, set construction requirements, and established minimum standards for sanitation and safety.
What did the law require?
Definition: A tenement is a building that is rented out to more than two families per floor, or more than three families in total
Windows: Each sleeping room must have a window or ventilator
Fire escapes: Each tenement must have a fire escape
Toilets: Each tenement must have a toilet for every 20 residents
Sewer connection: All new tenements must be connected to the sewer system
Drainage: New tenements must be graded and drained
Why was the law passed?
The law was passed in response to the poor living conditions in tenements, which were often home to working-class families
The law was also a response to the intolerable conditions that rioters experienced during the New York draft riots of 1863
What was the impact of the law?
The law helped pave the way for more rigorous housing legislation in the future
The law led to the development of new building plans, such as the “dumbbell” blueprint, which provided air to all rooms
Concurrency
the timely provision of public facilities and services relative to the demand for them. To maintain concurrency means that adequate public facilities are in place to serve new development as it occurs or within a specified time period
Trip generation rate
The trip generation of a site is determined by the land use and intensity of use that causes people to travel. The likelihood of users to make trips is dependent on the purpose of the trip and socioeconomic characteristics of the user such as age, income, or automobile ownership. For instance, a residential neighborhood is likely to have each household perform two trips a day during predictable times of day; morning rush-hour and evening rush-hour are peak travel hours for single-family residential land uses. Trip generation rates are determined through an Origin-Destination Survey, which sets up roadblocks along major corridors. Users on the study route can be asked questions about their point of origin (where they’re coming from) and their destination (where they’re going). Cross-Tabulation Models can be used to estimate trip generation based on socioeconomic characteristics, land use type, and trip purpose.
A Ladder of Citizen Participation
THEORY, ARNSTEIN: Citizen participation in democratic processes, if it is to be considered “participation†in any genuine or practice sense, requires the redistribution of power. In Arnstein’s formulation, citizen participation is citizen power. Without an authentic reallocation of power—in the form of money or decision-making authority, for example—participation merely “allows the powerholders to claim that all sides were considered, but makes it possible for only some of those sides to benefit. It maintains the status quo.1) MANIPULATION2) THERAPY3) INFORMING4) CONSULTATION5) PLACATION6) PARTNERSHIP7) DELEGATED POWER8) CITIZEN CONTROL
Lawrence Haworth
This book is an attempt to formulate a systematic philosophy of the city, connecting it at one end with ethical principles and at the other with the practical discipline of city planning in the interest of providing criteria by which concrete programs may be judged.
Tax Increment FInancing
this financing method involves using revenue earned from increased tax on a specific area within a jurisdiction that has been redeveloped to pay back the bond used to finance capital improvements made in the designated area. This method is used to improve areas with significant blight through targeted infrastructure improvements that eventually spur redevelopment in the area. As the property values in the area increases, the property tax applied to the area is reassessed which results in additional revenue to the jurisdiction which must be used to pay back the bonds used to finance the initial improvements
1983 – South Burlington County NAACP v Township of Mount Laurel II:
This finding cured the deficiencies of Mt. Laurel I, and created the model fair housing remedy for exclusionary zoning. Municipalities must provide their fair share of low and moderate income housing in their region. A special 3-judge panel was set up to rule on exclusionary zoning cases.
General Obligation Bonds
this method uses the tax revenue generated by the jurisdiction to pay back voter-approved bonds taken out for major capital improvements
Policy Delphi
this method, developed for the U.S. military in 1944, is used to create a consensus among two or more conflicting groups. The members of each PLANNING CERTIFICATION Plan Making & Implementation 92 group are asked to complete a series of questions, typically written as hypotheses about the given topic, and the answers to the questions are presented anonymously to both groups. The responses to the questions from each group are presented to the entire participating group in successive rounds of arguments and counterarguments until the range of opinions between the groups gradually decreases and a consensus is reached.
Section A: Principles to Which We Aspire
This section contains the ideals and principles certified planners should use when interacting with the public, clients, employers, and colleagues.
Section C: Advisory Opinions
This section describes the procedure for obtaining informal advice or formal advisory rulings from the Ethics Officer
Section D: Adjudication of Complaints of Misconduct
This section outlines the procedures for filing claims of misconduct and the timeline for review and decision.
Focus Group
this technique is an inexpensive and relatively fast alternative compared to larger community efforts and uses a small group of people that represent a sample of a larger population to understand public opinion towards a few, specific subjects. A focus group is typically assembled in an informal setting and a group leader directs the discussion about pointed subjects to determine the groups outlook on said subjects.
Charrette
this technique is characterized by an intensive, collaborative effort to produce a product, typically a detailed design or plan, and build consensus around said product. A design charrette is typically a short process lasting approximately one to three days. This technique brings together members of the project team with citizens and project stakeholders and is effective at building a consensus between all of the involved parties.
Visual Preference Survey
this technique uses visual aid to help citizens evaluate design alternatives. Typically, participants of a visual preference survey are asked to evaluate a group of pictures showing different design options of the same facility and score them to indicate the alternative that they deem most suitabl
Sector Theory
This theory of human settlement states that development radiates out from the CBD and follows major transportation routes
Special Tax District
This type of public financing delineates a geographic area and then assesses a special tax to be used only in the area
Land Ordinance of 1785
Thomas Jefferson outlined a system of designing and surveying the lands to determine the boundaries as we added the west. Rectangular land survey was based on township, six mile square (36 sq. miles) and land was sold as auctions for a minimum bid of $1 per acre.
Peak parking demand
Time of day when parking is most needed for a certain use or site
Mixed Uses
to what extent different land uses coexist or are mixed
CATHERINE BAUER
Today’s debates about public housing have a familiar ring to those who know the work of Catherine Bauer, who described many of the problems in her 1934 book, Modern Housing. Bauer’s views had a strong influence on the housing legislation of the New Deal, but in the 1950s she became an equally articulate advocate for long-range planning to guide metropolitan growth. In a 1951 essay titled “Social Questions in Housing and Community Planning,” she laid the foundation for what would later be called social planning.Catherine Bauer was a leader of the “housersâ€â€”advocates for high-quality public housing in the U.S., a cause that gathered steam during the Great Depression. After studying at Vassar and Cornell, Bauer deeply researched the European worker housing designed by Le Corbusier and other early Modernists. Her 1934 book Modern Housing was an indictment of America’s failure to build comfortable, dignified housing for ordinary people amid a national housing shortage. Following the insights from her book, Bauer largely wrote the U.S. Housing Act of 1937, which created America’s public-housing program. She also served on the leadership of numerous planning and housing organizations and agencies.At a time when there were few opportunities for women in architecture and planning, Bauer Wurster (she married architect William Wurster in 1940) worked her way to the pinnacle of those fields, becoming the first woman appointed to the faculty of Harvard’s Graduate School of Design. In the 1950s, Jane Jacobs, then an editor at Architectural Forum, criticized Bauer Wurster’s ongoing faith in top-down social-housing projects, while Bauer Wurster argued that these kinds of interventions were necessary to fight segregation—a topic Jacobs hardly ever confronted head-on.Bauer Wurster’s accomplishments are not widely recognized today. But in a moment of increased interest in housing policy in America—and a renewed push for public housing—she could be more relevant than ever.
Growth Management
Tools like UGB to contain sprawl and ensure services can meet demand
Realigned intersections
Traffic calming - change the roadway alignment near intersections to cause motorists to slow down before approaching
Chicane
Traffic calming - curb extensions to on alternating sides to force motorists to maneuver
Full or partial road closures
Traffic calming - go from 2 way to one way, or stop traffic beyond a point.
Roundabouts
Traffic calming - require motorists to circulate. For low speed smaller streets, unlike Traffic Circles (larger)
Transactive Planning
Transactive Planning: John Friedmann published a book in 1973 titled “Retracking America: A Theory of Transactive Planning.” Friedmann recognized that under advocacy planning, planners were still serving as technical experts determining alternatives. Transactive planning theory was a response to advocacy planning that aimed to get the public involved in the planning process. In transactive planning, planners meet with individual community members to discuss issues. Through mutual learning, the planner shares technical information with citizens, and citizens provided the planner with community knowledge. These meetings help the planner develop a plan. Transactive planning, similar to advocacy planning, believed planning could not merely be scientific. The largest critique of transactive planning is that meeting with citizens individually and having an engaging dialogue of mutual learning is time consuming. Also, determining the value or importance of each person’s knowledge is difficult and it cannot work where there are large disparities of opinions among stakeholders.
TOD
Transit Oriented Development. Working to encourage public transit to get from work to home. Tend to be no more than 1 mile wide, pedestrian scaled.
TIP
Transportation Improvement Programs - created by FHA of 1973. Unified work program for regions with more than 200k ppl. Prepared by the MPO and list out projects where federal funds are expected. Include multimodal projects. Outlines estimated costs, schedules for each phase
Alan Altshuler
Transportation secretary for MA during big dig–invented shifting most of the funds into public transportation and initiating the studies that have now led to the Big Dig. Alan was the secretary who led that process and he also did an extremely skillful job at working to get the legislation needed to do these things. It’s one thing to make a policy statement that you’re going to transform the MBTA or that you’re going to take highway funds and use them for transportation, but you had to change the law to make those things happen and Altshuler basically got a major reorganization of the BMTA through in 1973 and the same year he really was one of the primary architects of the change in federal law that permitted cities to make decisions to use interstate highway funds for public transportation, rather than the highway, and give what’s now called flexibility. That really was invented in Boston by Alan Altshuler.
TSM
Transportation System Management - technique used to maximize efficiency in transportation systems. Used interchangably with TDM or TCM. Goals: reduce traffic congestion and need for new infrastructure and improve air quality. Low cost measure to improve existing transportation infrastructure, like alternative transportation methods, carpooling, biking, walking, transit and telecommuting. Emphasizes trip capacity increase for existing system.
Transcontinental Railroad
Union Pacific and Central Pacific joined at Promontory Point, Utah to form the transcontinental railroad in 1869
Regional Shift
Unique local factors relating to local employment growth or decline
Golden v Planning Board of the Town of Ramapo (1972)
Upheld that ordinance for adequate facilities for development permit issuance was legal
Construction Industraty Association of Sonoma County v City of Petalum
upheld that Petaluma could set a quota of 500 building permit in 1971, as a slow growth model
1986 – City of Renton v Playtime Theaters:
Upheld the requirement of minimum distances between SOBs.
Radburn Style
US - based public housing method, backyards facing each other and front yards accessed by public streets. Due to concentration of poverty and lack of “eyes on the street”, crime was rampant
Cross tabulation models
Used to estimate trip generation based on socioeconomic characteristics, land use type, and trip purpose. Method is good for estimates where money is not available for Origine Destination Survey. But may contain errors and is less acurate.
Traffic Calming
Uses physical design to improve ped, bike and vehicle safety.
Nominal Group Technique
variation on brainstorming; question is asked to a group and each individual answers, all answers are recorded and prioritized by the group as a whole
1st Historic Preservation commission
Vieux Carre, New Orleans (1921)
US Housing Act of 1937
Wagner Steagall - Provided $500 mil in home loans to the development of low-cost housing and tied slum clearance to public housing
Central Place Theory
Walter Christaller (1933), there’s no minimum market theshold to bring a firm to a city, but there is a maximum
Saul Alinsky
was an American community activist and political theorist. His work through the Chicago-based Industrial Areas Foundation helping poor communities organize to press demands upon landlords, politicians, bankers and business leaders won him national recognition and notoriety. Responding to the impatience of a New Left generation of activists in the 1960s, Alinsky – in his widely cited Rules for Radicals: A Pragmatic Primer (1971) – defended the arts both of confrontation and of compromise involved in community organizing as keys to the struggle for social justice.
Blue infrastructure
water based infrastructure, such as stormwater management, bioretention, rain gardens, swales, reservoirs, and constructed wetlands
Special Districts
Water, transit, development
National Historic Preservation Act (1966)
What does the NHPA do?
Establishes a national policy
The NHPA created a national policy for preserving historic buildings and archaeological sites.
Creates the National Register of Historic Places
The NHPA created a list of historic properties that are significant to American history, architecture, and more.
Requires federal agencies to consider historic properties
The NHPA requires federal agencies to consider how their projects will affect historic properties.
Creates state historic preservation offices
The NHPA requires each state to have its own office that works on historic preservation.
Creates the President’s Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
The NHPA established an advisory council to help with historic preservation.
Why was the NHPA created?
The NHPA was created in response to the rapid destruction of historic places due to federally-funded projects.
The NHPA was created to ensure that future generations could appreciate the nation’s history.
What is a historic property?
A historic property is a building, structure, site, or object that is eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places.
A historic property is usually at least 50 years old and retains its integrity.
Chicago World’s Fair
White City inspiration created by Daniel Burnham, inspiration for 1909 Chicago Pan.
WILLIAM WHYTE
Whyte is best known for The Organization Man, his bestselling indictment of the culture of conformity in 1950s suburbia and corporate America. His emphasis on creativity and self-expression would be an inspiration for future urbanists and social critics, including Jane Jacobs, with whom he worked at Fortune, and contemporary writers like Richard Florida and David Brooks.Later in his career, “Holly†Whyte, as he was known, traded sweeping pop sociology for fine-grained urban-design analysis. His Street Life Project sought to understand why some New York City parks and plazas were well used, and others studiously avoided. Aided by time-lapse photography, Whyte charted how pedestrians moved through space; where they would sit to eat lunch; where they would stop and converse; and where they would move hurriedly on their way.He found that the most-used plazas in New York were more likely to have people in pairs or groups, and that stepped seating arrangements make a plaza more attractive by allowing loiterers to observe “the theater of the street,†among many other observations. Assisted by female graduate students, he was also one of the first researchers to study the different ways men and women engage with urban space.A conservationist as well as a lover of cities, Whyte applied his small-scale observations to advocate for greater investment in downtowns as opposed to sprawl. One of his maxims, “a good space beckons people in,†sounds obvious now, but only became so thanks to meticulous studies like his own.
Environmental Policy
Wildlife habitat (T&E), stormwater runoff/water quality relationship, water quality & quantity issues, surface & groundwater, functions of wetlands, air quality/public health relationship
Jacob Riis
Wrote book changing how people thought about how the other half lived, housing and neighborhood reform. He is known for using his photographic and journalistic talents to help the impoverished in New York City; those impoverished New Yorkers were the subject of most of his prolific writings and photography. He endorsed the implementation of “model tenements” in New York.
Zero Base Budgeting
Zero-Base Budgeting (ZBB): this budgeting method requires the justification of all expenses for a reporting period, essentially starting from “zero” each time the budget is prepared. This requires a re-evaluation of programs on a regular basis to understand their effectiveness. It also allows organizations to analyze the outputs and costs for every effort they complete, resulting in a budget that focuses on programs that make the entire organization more efficient. A component of this budgeting method includes the compilation of decision package for each program that summarize the impact on an organization’s goals if a program were to receive low, medium, or high funding during that period.
Zip Code stands for
Zone Improvement Plan Code v
Budgets & Financing – Public Financing Tools
v Special Taxing Authorities v Special assessments v User fees v Tax Increment Financing
Targets vs estimates vs projections vs forcasts
v Targets: express desirable future populations based on policies and goals. v Estimates: measure of a present or past condition that cannot be measured directly because of a lack of resources (data, time, money). v Projections: conditional statement about the future, describing what the future is likely to be if a given set of assumptions proves to be true; typically based on statistical models that extrapolate past and present trends into the future. Projections can be created through very simple or very complex calculations, the type of calculation used is based on available data and desired use of the projection. v Forecasts: conditional statement about the future, describing what the future is likely to be; typically based on statistical models, but reflecting and incorporating the decisions and judgment of the analyst with respect to various factors.
Budget and Finance Options
vCurrent revenues – cash vRevenue funds/Fees vState and Federal grants vRevenue bonds vGeneral obligation bonds
Goal, Objective, Policy, and Program Differences
vGOAL: value-based statement, not necessary measurable; should include purpose, scope and context vOBJECTIVE: more specific, measurable statement of a desired end; should include location, character, and timing vPOLICY: rule or course of action that indicates how the goals and/or objectives of the plan should be realized; should include principles, agreements, laws, regulations, and resolutions vPROGRAM: series of related, mission-orientated activities aimed at carrying out a particular goal or policy; should include initiatives, projects, milestones, costs and responsibilities
Chesapeake Bay Agreement, 1983
§ Address and plan for pollution affecting the Chesapeake Bay watershed.
Growth Management Strategies
§ Comprehensive Planning & Regulations § Urban Growth Boundary § Infrastructure Planning & Funding § Environmental Regulations
Tennessee Valley Authority, 1933
§ Convert two munitions factories and one hydroelectric plant into a regional power authority and a factory producing fertilizer. § First example of multi-state planning for power and flood control
Port Authority of NY and NJ, 1921
§ Created to run most regional transportation infrastructure (bridges, tunnels, airports, seaports) within NY-NJ Port District along Hudson and East Rivers § In charge World Trade Center plaza rebuilding
Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs)
§ Deal largely with transportation § Role expanding with recent legislation § Also Rural Planning Organizations
The basic steps of plan making and implementation:
§ Identification of stakeholders § Defining and identifying problems § Gathering information and analysis § Developing alternatives/evaluating impacts § Selecting an alternative § Budget and implementation § Evaluation and amendment § Achievement
1964 Economic Opportunity Act
§ Part of Johnson’s War on Poverty/Great Society § Head Start remains v Created Community Action Agencies
These local agencies were funded by the federal government to help with poverty issues
Established the Office of Economic Opportunity
This office oversaw and coordinated anti-poverty programs
Provided access to services
The EOA helped people get services like job counseling, health care, and childcare
Provided educational opportunities
The EOA provided early childhood education, vocational training, and work-study programs
Mobilized volunteers
The EOA created Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA) to help in low-income communities
TSM
Transportation System Management - technique used to maximize efficiency in transportation systems. Used interchangably with TDM or TCM. Goals: reduce traffic congestion and need for new infrastructure and improve air quality. Low cost measure to improve existing transportation infrastructure, like alternative transportation methods, carpooling, biking, walking, transit and telecommuting. Emphasizes trip capacity increase for existing system.
TSM
Transportation System Management - technique used to maximize efficiency in transportation systems. Used interchangably with TDM or TCM. Goals: reduce traffic congestion and need for new infrastructure and improve air quality. Low cost measure to improve existing transportation infrastructure, like alternative transportation methods, carpooling, biking, walking, transit and telecommuting. Emphasizes trip capacity increase for existing system.
