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Agriculture And food Supply Flashcards

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1
Q

What are emission scenarios determined by

A 
Economic growth
Population growth
Fossil fuel use
Land use change
New technologies
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2
Q

What has the temperature risen by in the last century

A

0.6*C

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3
Q

What are the 3 major changes causing in agriculture

A

Human activity changing co2
Changes in global surface temperature
Changes in rainfall

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4
Q

What do we need to do To predict effect of further climates on crip yield

A

Increase atmospheric co2 concentrations
Increase atmospheric temperature
Adjust rainfall accordingly

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5
Q

What are the impacts of a particular change in one factor dependant on

A

The effect of others

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6
Q

Why is there less impact of elevated co2 under drought

A

Bc they are stimulated by increase co2 so more spruce for them to photosynthesis so if drought hits there’s a greater effect

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7
Q

Why is there renter impact of increased temperature effects under elevated co2

A

Under aminant co2 concentrations a few difference in growth f plants; under elevated co2 concentrations elevate the growth

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8
Q

What are the limitations of the experiment on complex interactions between environmental factors that stimulates global climate change

A

Strictly controlled engionrmwntw
Limited temp fluctuations
Timing of irrigation may not simulate rainfall
Limited pot size
Some components of environmental change not considered
Plants not grown until yield

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9
Q

What is a way to improve the experiment on complex interactions between environmental factors that stimulates global climate change

A

Use previous environment/ yield data to stimulate future yields.

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10
Q

Example of a place to compile yield data

A

Lobell and Asner 2003. Complies historical records on rainfall, light temperatures across growing zones in USA. Accessed info on crop yields in same parts and then they just did some statistical associations to understand whether the changes in environment were correlated to changes in crop yield.

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11
Q

Examples of crops which decreased yield in some places and increased elsewhere with increased temperature

A

Soy bean and corn bean

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12
Q

What is the correlation between rainfall and light intensity with crop yields

A

Not correlated

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13
Q

Why does increased temperature decrease yield for maize and soybean

A

Crops had development sped up by increased temperature. Had leaves exposed to light for short time, life cycle is compressed, photosynthesis is less and therefore lower yield

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14
Q

What is the climate change effect on percentage crop yield trends due to predicted impacts of temperature and rainfall for maize

A

-3.8% (lobell£

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15
Q

What is the climate change effect on percentage crop yield trends due to predicted impacts of temperature and rainfall for wheat

A

-5.5% (lobell)

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16
Q

What has climate change already decrease maize production by

A

4%

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17
Q

What is the limitation of the Lobell study

A

Model takes no account of:
Expansion of cropping areas into cooler climates where previously could not be grown.
Use of new varieties like plant breeding and genetic modification to make them more adaptive.
Farmer changes in cropping practice like earlier planning date.
Rainfall intensity to determine soil water uptake.
Co2 fertilising effects.

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18
Q

What is farmer changes in cropping practice called

A

Agronomy

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19
Q

What are the 3 major approaches to determining the effects of climate change on food production

A

Experimental
Historical yield/ environment analysis
Crop growth/ stimulation modelling

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20
Q

What are the 3 major approaches to mitigating the effects of climate change in food production

A

Plant breeding to exploit natural genetic diversity

GM by adding/ altering specific genes

Agronomy by changing the environment through agricultural practices

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21
Q

What is the concept of plant breeding

A

Select a wild relative showing tolerance to a component of climate change.
Over many cycles of crowding and selection a new genotype is created and released.

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22
Q

What is a component of climate change

A

Drought
High temperatures
Blight

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23
Q

Example of wild relatives of rice that are stress tolerant

A

Oryx rufipogon

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24
Q

Example of wild relatives of wheat that are stress tolerant

A

Aegilops

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25
Q

Example of wild relatives of potato that are stress tolerant

A

Solanum

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26
Q

Example of tomato plant breeding

A

S.lycopersicum crosses with s.pennellii (small and drought tolerant, inedible) tO get F1

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27
Q

What are the general ateps in plant breeding

A
  1. Assemble variability in traits of interest
  2. Evaluate and select potential parents for crossings
  3. Create pure lines (homozygous) by backcrossing
  4. Hybridise
  5. F1 hybrids are produced
  6. Evaluate the progeny (election process)
  7. Backcross the hybrid
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28
Q

What is a good plant to breed with to get kohlrabi, kale, broccoli, Brussels spouts, cabbage or cauliflower

A

Wild mustard plant

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29
Q

What are limitations of plant breeding techniques

A

Time consuming and labour intensive.
Difficult to modify some traits as they are controlled by many genes.
High genetic uniformity increases vulnerability to pests and diseases.

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30
Q

Example of a successful plant breeding crop

A

Semi dwarf cereal varieties in the green revolution

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31
Q

What are 3 globally important food security crops

A

Drought tolerance of rice
High temperature tolerance of wheat
Disease tolerance (potato blight)

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32
Q

How does improving root growth in rice help it’s drought tolerance

A

Can take up water from deep in soil and continue to be a high yielding crop in less wet conditions

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33
Q

What is the difficult part of planting rice due to the massive variation in rice yield when grown under stress conditions

A

Deciding which variety to use as

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34
Q

What is the problem in wheat yield if temp goes above 27

A

Pollen sterility

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35
Q

What is a result of heat stress

A

Climate change

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36
Q

What is the effect across uniform of elevating xo2 concentrations in wheat

A

Increase yield

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37
Q

How to impose heat stress experimentally

A

Augmenting natural temperature variation in the field.
Plant crop later in its developmental cycle in the field which can heat up crop artificially to select varieties that are more resistant.
Screen varieties in the field.
Simulating in growth cabinets.

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38
Q

What is the physiology and yield of 5 aegilops species under heat stress

A

All 5 have a percent decrease due to heat stress.
Some are less heat sensitive.
Vegetative variables e.g chlorophyll growth.
Limited genetic variability in the Sensitivty of it to heat stres.

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39
Q

Explain the potato blight

A

The fungal pathogen is attacking crops earlier in the season as climate changes.
Backed up by simulation studies at how climate change might impact the particular crop.
Climate change predictions is the potato blight will become more severe in the future.
Should be looking at resistant potatoes.

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40
Q

What is the problem with the solution to the potato blight

A

None of the resistant potatoes are on the list of most planted potatoes in the Uk. Maris piper is not resistant at all

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41
Q

How long does breeding for blight resistance take

A

3 years

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42
Q

What is the challenge with plant breeding

A

Whether the range of progress we can generate from yield is going to be high enough for plant breeding to get increased yield year on year to deal with increasing population

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43
Q

Why did Burkina Faso call time on GM cotton

A

Quality wasn’t good enough and yields not high enough

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44
Q

What has happened to the rate of adoption of GM worldwide

A

Over the last 5 years rate of adoption has dramatically slower shhhestion future of gm crops would not be substantial

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45
Q

Who is the biggest adopter of GM crops

A

United States

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46
Q

Why do no European countries adopt GM crops

A

Bc European legislation prevents the use of gm crops in agriculture

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47
Q

Who are the top 10 adopters of GM crops

A 
United States
Brazil
Argentina
Canada 
India 
Paraguay 
Pakistan
China
South Africa
Bolivia
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48
Q

Uptake of GM technology in Europe v USA

A

No commercial grown GM crops and declining number of field trials but in USA almost complete adoption for major arable crops (maybe at saturation£

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49
Q

What are the two GM crop types

A

Herbicide tolerance = glyphosate resistance “roundup ready”

Insect resistance = Bt plants

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50
Q

What are stacked traits

A

Contains both herbicide tolerance and insect resistance

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51
Q

Where are roundup ready crops sourced from

A

Agrobacterium

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52
Q

What is the gene in roundup ready crops

A

CP4 EPSP

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53
Q

Where are Bt crops sourced

A

Bacillus thuringiensis

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54
Q

What is the gene in BT crops

A

Cry1A(b)

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55
Q

Example of Bt crop at work

A

Cotton bollworm ingest cry proteins liberated toxins in alkaline insect gut which kills gut cells. Gene produces toxic crystals and once in the caterpillar the protein crystals are activated and bind to the cells of the gut and there’s a series of molecular events leading to the death

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56
Q

How to genetically engineer a plant using a bacterium

A

Desired gene and the plasmid make the desired gene. Put the desired gene in the agrobacterium. The two cells merge to make a GM plant. also has a marker gene like antibiotic resistance

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57
Q

How to test whether a gene has been transferred

A

Plants with new genes grow despite antibiotics but cells without are killed by antibiotics so don’t grow

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58
Q

How to transfer gene using particle gun

A

Gold or tungsten particles coasted in DNAx particle gun shoots it into lots of cell hoping some will survive and creating the modified cell. Has a promoter

59
Q

Advantages of transgenic techniques

A

Relative fast if genes isolated or cloned compared to long selection cycles with plant breeding.
Selectively modify specific genes.
Offers precision especially new gene editing techniques.
Allow new traits to be introduced from other species and overcomes species barrier to hybridising

60
Q

Examples of engineered nucleases

A

TALEN/ZFNS/CRISPR-Cas

61
Q

Why is new GM more precise than old GM

A

Allows modifying just the site of the gene rather than having additional sequence of antibiotic resistance

62
Q

Why does selection process have to be over a couple of cycles

A

To make sure the gene is stable in your GM plant

63
Q

What are the disadvantages of transgenic techniques

A 
Time consuming/ labour intensive/ special Trainint.
Human health issues?
Effects on non target organisms.
Transgene escape.
Public acceptability.
64
Q

Why is inadvertent transfer of allergens not an argument against GM

A

No credible evidence that GM plants have adverse effects on human health e.g USA and Uk have similar health

65
Q

Why may GM be good for human health

A

Decreased human consumption of fungal toxins

Decrease insecticide use so less chemical poisoning in farmers

66
Q

Why may selection for herbicide resistance in weed population not a good issue with GM crops

A

Not a GM SPECIFIC ISSUE - weeds resistance bc wide spread use
Introduction of glyphosate (accompanies transgenic crop species)

67
Q

Why may effects on non target organisms i n weed population not a good issue with GM crops

A

Thought that toxin pollen from Bt maize killing larvae of monarch butterfly on milkweeds but other floral parts not the pollen contain Bt in high concentrations

68
Q

Why may toxin pollen from Bt Maize not always a problem

A

Not all Bt maize lines produce toxic pollen

Decreased insecticide use has less effect on monarch population

69
Q

What is the dispersal radium of GM pollen

A

90% of Bt maize pollen falls within 5m or the edge of the field

70
Q

What are the other threats to monarch populations

A 
Climate change (linger flight path from Mexico to Uk)
Declining milkweed populations (linked to herbicide use)
71
Q

What are the ways of avoiding effects on non-target organisms

A

Allow gene expression only in specific tissue (constitutive expression)

Tissue specific expression

Chloroplast transformation to prevent transfer of GM polln

72
Q

Example of promoter that allows gene expression

A

35S

73
Q

How does only allowing expression in a single part prevent transfer of pollen

A

U ensure that the cry180 gene only expressed in some parts so caterpillar feeding on other parts of the plant survive bc not getting poisoned

74
Q

What is transgene escape

A

Escape of the crop into the wild (feral genetions)

75
Q

What does transgene escape lead to

A

Crop to weed hybridisation

76
Q

Why do Gm have a bad rep

A

Bc they are made by biotech companies that say use more GM and buy more herbicides and it’s unethical

77
Q

What is the research into serendipitous transgenic modification for drought tolerant rice

A

Bacteria PROTOX gene.
Ubiquitin promoter.
Discovered by accident that the plant could contain water much better than usual. Accident - set out to make it herbicide resistance. No follow up research’s o probably didn’t effect yield.

78
Q

What is the research into recent transgenic modification for drought tolerant rice

A

AtGolS2 gene and Zm Ubi promoter.
3 different rice varieties (Curinga, tropical japonica, NERICA4)
Increase leaf relative water content.
Higher photosynthesis??

79
Q

What is the research into the status quo of transgenic modification for drought tolerant rice

A

China has nearly reached self sufficiency in producing rice so the ministry has decided there is no need to commercialise By rice in the near future. Some Chinese scientists attacked giving public lectures about GM.

80
Q

What is the research into transgenic modification for heat tolerant wheat

A

Inserting a maize PEP carboxylase into wheat.

Increased photosynthesis rate by decreasing ROS production.

81
Q

Why shouldn’t we be focusing on heat stress in maize

A

Because there’s a whole lot of processes before we get to yield like pollen viability and photosynthesis is only one process affected by heat stress

82
Q

What does heat stress effect

A

Physiological
Biochemical
Growth and development
Yield reduction

83
Q

What is research into transgenic potato variety

A

Some potatoes in South America are naturally resistant as they have co-evolved with the pathogen.
Widespread interest of transferring genes from wild spread species into commercial ones through plant breeding but this failed.
Large scale coorportarions decided to genetically modify by taking a gene and inserting into potato.
It worked well with big yield but bc it’s European company they couldn’t sell it commercially due to legislation.

84
Q

What was the gene donor for the potato blight GM crop

A

American Black Nightshade

85
Q

What is the best progress with the Gm crops

A

GM blight- free potatoes

86
Q

Why is methane released in rice paddies

A

Exudates in plants stimulates the methagenic bacteria meaning methane is released

87
Q

What percentage of global methane is rice paddies

A

35%

88
Q

What can limit the methane being released by rice

A

Wetting and drying

89
Q

What is there a large difference between

A

What farmers achieve and what is possible under optimal conditions

90
Q

In theory how would you be able to close the gap between maximum genetic potential and actuality of growing

A

Increase crop water availability

91
Q

Why are wheat yields increasing

A

Due to plant breeders and possibly climate change

92
Q

What happens to countries using Istyle cereal production

A

Brazil China and Egypt have increase crop yield

93
Q

What happens with u style cereal production

A

Albania Bulgaria and Switzerland are declining but no real trend line

94
Q

What happens with n style cereal production

A

Algeria Iraq and South Africa are increasing with no trend line

95
Q

What happens with d style cereal production

A

Jordan Japan and Puerto Rico are declining

96
Q

What do developed countries minimise

A

Yield gaps for maize, wheat and rice

97
Q

Why are many of the most populous countries already near maximal yields

A

They have high resource inputs

98
Q

What is happening with yield gaps in Europe

A

We are proportionate, farmers are doing ok, stills. Gap but not big

99
Q

What is happening with yield gaps in Asia and China

A

High yield as farmers in China are given subsidies to boost crops and they are grown in irrigation systems. 70-90% of genetic potential of crops

100
Q

What percentage of the worlds ageicurkral system is in China and Asia

A

20%

101
Q

In less developed countries what is the yield gap

A

10-20% of the potential of the crops

102
Q

What are the management factors in yield crops

A

Ability to irrigate which is climate change related or supply N fertiliser.
Limit farmers capacity to close the yield gap.

103
Q

What does farmers ability to close yield gap depend mostly on

A

Nitrogen in highest quantities

104
Q

What percentage of the plant is nitrogen

A

3-5%

105
Q

What does agronomist effect on dry land Australian wheat production give grounds for

A

Optimism that new agronomic innovations will continue to increase yield

106
Q

What happened during the Australian wheat production

A

Soil depletes from nutrients so for a time crop yield depleted. Used a phosphate fertiliser to achieve good yields and try to improve water availabili y by giving the soul a rest and letting it recover. Introducing legume crops increaed yield. All changes in farmer practices increases yield year after year on a climatic continent

107
Q

Examples of agronomy

A 
Seedbed preparation
Planting date
Crop Rotation
Intercropping
Nutrient management 
Water management 
Microbial inoculants
Spray programmes 
Crop protection
108
Q

What is crop rotation

A

Not growing same crop on land year after year

109
Q

What is intercropping

A

Planting two crops on the same piece of land

110
Q

How can agronomy help

A 
Promote crop establishment 
Avoid sub optimal conditions
Break crop benefits
Complementary resource use 
Prevent deficiencies
Needed for transpiration
Stimulate plant growth
Cope with abiotic stress
Control of pests and disease
111
Q

How much water does agriculture use

A

70% of worlds water

112
Q

What percentage of GHG emissions from agriculture

A

24%

113
Q

What gases are released from farm land

A

Nitrous oxide
Methane
Co2

114
Q

How big were the emissions by source from agriculture in 2010

A

10 billion tonnes of co2

115
Q

How much did global sinks remove in 210

A

2 billion tonn e

116
Q

Examples of sources and sinks in agriculture

A 
Crops and livestock
Net forest conversion
Forest 
Biomass fires
Degraded pasturelands
117
Q

What has happened to emissions over 50 years

A

They have doubled and similar yield increases

118
Q

What are tHe largest emittters in agriculture

A 
Enteric fermentation
Manure left on pastureland
Synthetic fertilisers
Paddy rice
Manure management 
Burning of Savannah’s
119
Q

What does livestock peodxiviron account for in agriculture greenhouse gas emissions

A

2/3rds

120
Q

If everyone went veggie what could we slash emissions from

A

60%

121
Q

What should relative contributions by continent be

A

Population weighted

Yield related

122
Q

How much methane does a cow produce per year

A

120kg

123
Q

How much methane does a human produce per year

A

0.12kg

124
Q

Where are greenhouse gases emitted in arable agriculture

A

Fertiliser addition as nitrogen or farmyard manure. Most significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions from arable agriculture

125
Q

Why agronomic approaches good

A

They can be planted immediately unlike Gm crops and new varieties

126
Q

What are 3 case studies for possible agronomic approaches

A

Irrigation management and drought tolerance
Ethylene antagonists to alleviate heat stress in wheat
Fungicides to control potato blight

127
Q

What is good about alternate wettint and drying

A

Decreases water use and increased yield of local babgladeshi rice varieties

128
Q

How does alternate wetting and drying work

A

Take a perpetrated plastic tube.
Insect into soil of rice paddy.
Allows you to measure height of the wearer as the crops transpires it reduces crops transpire and reduces water table and soil starts to dry.
When below 15cm you should reflow the crop to reduce stress.

129
Q

How many studies have evaluated the wetting and drying technique in Asia

A

56

130
Q

How much does wetting and drying decrease water use by but achieve the same yield

A

30%

131
Q

What is a challenge of agronomy

A

We can conduct trials but it’s not important it farmwrs aren’t willing to adopt to different techniques

132
Q

How can you overcome heat stress in wheat with 1-MCP (anti-ethylene)

A

2 different wheat barriers with different heat sensitivity.

Yield losses due to heat but yield maintenance following 1-MCP spray. It blocks ethylene in plants.

133
Q

What are two sprays to use on wheat to reduce heat spray

A

Ethylbloc delays flower senescence

Smart fresh blocks fruit ripening

134
Q

What are agronomic impacts of 1-MCP wnd heat stress determined by

A

Timing of spraying and crop development stage - effects on human not known but when harvested it is dissipated in environment

135
Q

What is the name of the work to develop new anti heat compounds

A

Knowledge Transfer Partnership (KTP)

136
Q

what was KTPs aim

A

To develop a novel foliage treatment
To alleviate the effects of heat stress on reproductive development in wheat.
MCP is expensive and not available in some places

137
Q

How to predict late blight

A

Using meteorological information as pathogen is environmentally limited

138
Q

For blight pathogen to break what do the conditions need to be

A

2 days with minimum temp of 10 and 2 hours with himidity of 90% or more

139
Q

How does blight watch work

A

You get an automatic notification of when you should spray fungi on crops if you reach weather requirements

140
Q

What is a challenge to farmwrs on blight watch

A

Legislation has resulted in a reduced number of fungicides to spray. Have to use same one again and again leading to resistance

141
Q

What is the Smith period

A

2 days of 10*C and 10-11h of 90% himidity

142
Q

How do companies profit from potato blight

A

Different companies market different fungicides to compar it

143
Q

What are non toxic alternatives for late blight

A

Benign chemicals that breaks down in plants to release potassium and phsopeheus and found to be effective as organic fungicides. (Potassium phosphite)

144
Q

What does the crop yield equal

A

Genotype x environment x management

Global Change Biology (6 decks)

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