Aggression (Paper 3) Flashcards
Serotonin
Inhibitory neurotransmitter
Associated with self-control
Therefore, low levels of serotonin are thought to be linked with impulsive and aggressive behaviour.
Limbic system def + function + Dysfunction of parts
Portion of the brain that deals with: emotions, memories and physiological arousal (stimulation)
Made up of 6 main structures that work together, malfunction in one can affect controlling reactive aggression.
Contains: Amygdala, Hypothalamus, hippocampus
Amygdala: Responsible for quickly evaluating the emotional importance of sensory info
Hypothalamus: Receives info from amygdala, part of the endocrine and nervous system so controls hormones.
Both key steps in fight/flight response; dysfunction in either can cause problems in the response.
Hippocampus: Involved in formation of long-term memories.
Dysfunction in this can cause current sensory info to not be put in correct context, meaning the amygdala may respond inappropriately.
Evaluation of Limbic System (Neural + Hormonal) (2 S for each, 2 L for overall)
Neural:
Strengths:
- Supporting evidence: Gospic et al (2011)
- Carried out fMRI scans on P’s in lab-based game that provoked aggression called The Ultimate Game
- Found when the P’s displayed an aggressive reaction, the amygdala showed a fast, heightened response
- Further Research: Sérotonine kids
- Carried out a meta-analysis of 29 studies assessing serotonin levels in anti-social children
- Found they had low levels of serotonin (especially the ones who attempted suicide)
- Suggests reduction in serotonin = more impulsive, aggressive behaviour
Hormonal:
Strengths:
- Supporting evidence: Male Prisoners
- Dolan et all (2001) found a positive correlation between test levels and aggressive behaviour in 60 male offenders in UK who had histories of violent behaviour
- Further evidence: Another Prison study
- Dabbs et al (1987) tested inmates’ test levels and their crimes
- Found the prisoners with violent crimes had higher testosterone levels, whereas prisoners with non-violent crimes had lower testosterone levels
Limitations:
- Simplistic
- Explanation that focuses on one biochemical is too simplistic (serotonin/testosterone)
- It’s been shown High test levels only = aggression when cortisol levels are low
- Other research suggests aggression involves a complex interaction between brain structures and neurotransmitters
- Reductionist
- A more holistic view that accounts for environmental/social (childhood etc) could be more valid.
Function of MAOA gene + effect of low activity variant
Breaks down dopamine, Noradrenaline and serotonin
Low activity variant: MAOA-L (aka warrior gene)
Means low activity and production of MAOA.
Which leads to fewer neurotransmitters being broken down in the synapse.
Which leads to higher levels of these neurotransmitters.
Name of Candidate gene for aggression + where it’s found + implications
MAOA
Found ONLY in the X chromosome we get from our mother.
Hypothesised this is why men are more aggressive then women:
- Men = XY (so one X chromo from their mother)
- Females = XX (so one X from their mother and one X from father)
Therefore, the females will 100% have a normal (high activity) MAOA gene from their father so even if they get the MAOA-L gene from their mother, it’s ’diluted’ by the father’s.
Evaluation of genetic factors for aggression (can be used for MAOA gene as well) (2 S + 1 L)
Strengths:
- Twin studies
- Studied 187 MZ adult twins
- Found concordance rates of 50% for MZ and 19% for DZ in physical aggression levels
- Adoptees
- Reviewed 14,000 adoptions in Denmark
- Found a significant positive correlation between number of convictions for criminal violent among biological fathers and their sons
- (Biological Dad = agressive and their son = aggressive, despite having environmental differences)
Limitation:
- Problem with twin studies
- Shared aggression levels could be due to environmental factors
- Also for MZ twins, as they share 100% DNA, it should be 100% concordance
- because it’s not 100%, other factors must play a role in causing aggression
Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) def + 6 main features
FAP: A sequence of behaviours that occur throughout a species that are activated through an innate releasing mechanism
Innate Releasing mechanism: Something that activates a biological structure that activates a FAP. (IRM triggered by aggressive stimulus)
Features:
- Stereotyped - Relatively unchanging
- Universalised - Same behaviour is found in every individual of that species
- Unaffected by learning or individual experience
- Ballistic - Once the behaviours are started, it followed a predicated course that can’t be stopped until it’s completed
- Single purpose - Behaviour only occurs on a specific situation
- Occurs in response to a specific stimulus/signal
Ethological explanation
Tries to understand the innate behaviour of animals and humans.
Says aggression is often ritualistic, and the opponent is not often killed but rather forced to move onto new territory.
Ritual: set of behaviours carried out in a set order (eg displaying claws/teeth, facial expressions, sounds etc)
Can be ritualistic appeasement (conceding - eg wolf showing neck to say they’ve have lost) or ritualistic dominance display (eg bear showing its teeth)
Evaluation of Ethological Explanation )1 S + 2 L)
Strength:
- Supporting evidence: Tinbergen (1951)
- Studied stickleback fish and their FAP + IRM by putting a red dot on a bit of wood shaped like a fish (as they attack fish with red dots in nature)
- Found regardless of the model, the fish would act aggressively and attack it.
- Also found the aggressive displays were always the same (once triggered, the FAP always ran its course till completion)
Limitations:
- Cultural differences (+ Evidence)
(also can be used for evolutionary explanation)
- If they exist, it’s said that FAPs must be universalised. However it’s seen that some humans are aggressive and others aren’t
- eg Amish are peaceful and Yanomami tribe are highly aggressive
- To support this: Nisbett et all (1996) found (in the US) there is a north-south homicide rate divide.
- He found when southern white males were insulted, they were more likely to become aggressive than northern white males.
- Suggests aggressive behaviour is a ‘learned social-norm’ which contradicts ethological explanation as it’s hard to say how cultural differences can override innate systems.
- Opposing evidence: Goodall (2010) Chimpanzees
- Ethological says animals don’t kill to save their species
- However, Goodall found chimpanzees continued to be aggressive (attack) if their opponent was showing appeasement (defeat) signals
- Therefore challenges the claim that aggression is a ‘harmless ritual)
2 Evolutionary Explanations of Aggression
1. Sexual jealousy: In hetro couples, SJ is said to be an ‘adaptive behaviour’ to avoid cuckolding (raising a child who the father is not genetically connected to). This is done through mate retention strategies
Sexual jealously is what leads to aggressive behaviours.
Strategies:
- Direct guarding: Preventing woman’s access to other males (eg checking phone)
- Negative inducements: Using verbal threats or direct violence on woman to prevent them accessing other males. (eg domestic violence).
2. Bullying: Where a more powerful individual attacks a weaker individual deliberately and repeatedly.
Said to be a strategy that promotes the bully’s health and creating reproductive opportunities
Men:
Volk (2012) argued that characteristic of bullying are attractive to opposite sex.
Eg: shows dominance and strength which also have the benefit of warding off competitors while attracting females. Therefore these behaviours are naturally selected.
Women:
Use bullying usually in relationships to secure their partners fidelity so they can continue to produce offspring.
Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanation of aggression (2 S + 1 L)
Strengths:
- Supporting evidence: Shackleford Survey (2005)
- Carried out a survey of 461 males and 560 females in long-term relationships about mate retention strategies
- Found a positive correlation between men’s reports of their own MRT and females reports of their physical aggression
- Suggests sexual jealousy + MRT leads to aggressive behaviour
- Practical application: Clare’s Law
- Having the knowledge of how sexual jealousy can lead to aggression has as lead to the development of Clare’s law which helps protect potential victims.
- Clare’s Law: allows police to disclose information about one’s partner’s history of abusive or violent behaviour (basically if they beat their precious wife or not).
Limitation:
- Cultural differences (+ Evidence)
(also can be used for ethological explanation)
- If the strategies exist, they must be universal as we have all evolved, however they are not.
- eg Amish are peaceful and Yanomami tribe are highly aggressive
- To support this: Nisbett et all (1996) found (in the US) there is a north-south homicide rate divide.
- He found when southern white males were insulted, they were more likely to become aggressive than northern white males.
- Suggests aggressive behaviour is a ‘learned social-norm’ which contradicts evolutionary explanation as it’s hard to say how cultural differences can override innate, evolved systems.
Frustration aggression hypothesis
Dollars et al(1939) Claims aggressive behaviour is a form of catharsis and is caused by built up frustration.
- More frustration = More aggression
- Frustration = caused by an individuals goals being blocked by external forces
Also claimed aggression is not always expressed directly at the source due to various reasons of the source being:
- Abstract (eg poverty)
- More powerful (eg teacher)
- Absent/Unavailable
In these cases, aggression is displaced into something else (eg parents)
Frustration aggression hypothesis was later revised to claim: Frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression but readies you for it.
More likely to happen if a weapon is present - known as the weapon effect.
Evaluation of Frustration-Agression Hypothesis (2 S + 1 L)
Strengths:
- Supporting Puzzle Study
Geen (1968) Gave male students a jigsaw puzzle to complete of which
- Group 1: Were given an impossible task.
- Group 2: Ran out of time because a confederate would keep interfering.
- Group 3: Were insulted every time they made a mistake (by a confederate).
- Control: Complete normal puzzle
They were then able to give (fake) shocks to a confederate.
Found Group 3 gave the strongest shocks, followed by Group 2 then Group 1. All 3 gave stronger than the Control.
Supports F-A as group 3 would have been most frustrated and they demonstrated highest aggression (shocks).
- Further Evidence: Berkowitz (1989) Gun on table Shock Study
- Got a confederate to give shocks to students in a lab experiment.
- Then gave students opportunity to give (fake) shocks back.
- When two guns were on the table, the avg shocks given back were 6.07 whereas when there wasn’t, it was 4.67.
- Suggests many ethical debates for gun laws
Limitations:
- Bushman Boxing (2002)
- Teated aggressive behaviour (of punching a bag) as catharsis.
- Found that instead of feeling more relaxed after, P’s felt more aggressive.
- Questions validity of the hypothesis.
SLT Explanation for aggression
Says that aggressive behaviour is learn through the usual mediation processes and by observing role models.
Meditational process:
1. Attention: Observer notices aggressive behaviour
2. Retention:Observer remembers the behaviour and how it played out
3. Motivation: Observer must have some sort of reason to imitate behaviour. May be because they expect a reward or they identify with the role model
4. Motor reproduction: Observer considers their ability to replicate/repeat the action
Evaluation of SLT explanation of aggression (2 S + 1 L)
Strengths:
- Supporting evidence: Bobo Doll experiment
- In the study, children were more likely to imitate if the role model was of the same gender, supporting identification.
- Also, in a follow up study, children were more likely to imitate if they saw the adults being rewarded for their actions, supporting vicarious reinforcement
- Practical application
- If we know that aggressive behaviours are learnt (especially in children) through aggressive modes (role models, media etc) then we can remove these models to reduce aggressive behaviour
Limitations:
- Overlooks role of biology
- Research has consistently shown high testosterone levels = high aggression levels
- EG Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment found the boys were more aggressive
- Therefore, a more interactionalist approach may be more suited.
