AGGRESSION

Question 1

outline Ritualistic aggression (A01)

Answer 1

One aspect of the ethological explanation of ritualistic aggression. A ritual is a series of behaviours carried out in a set order. In some of Konrad Lorenz’s early observations of fights between animals of the same species he noted how little actual physical damage was done. Most aggressive encounters consisted mainly of a period of ritualistic signalling (e.g. displaying claws and teeth, facial expressions of threat) and rarely reached the point of becoming physical. Furthermore, Lorenz recognised that intra-species (within species) conflicts end with ritual appeasement displays (showing you are no longer a threat). These indicate acceptance of defeat and inhibit aggressive behaviour in the victor. For example, a wolf will expose its neck to the victor, deliberately making itself vulnerable to reduce further aggression. This is adaptive because if every aggressive encounter ended in death, this could threaten the existence of the species.

Question 2

what is the IRM

Answer 2

An innate releasing mechanism (IRM) is a built-in physiological process or structure, for instance a network of neurons (a circuit) in the brain. An environmental stimulus (such as a certain facial expression for a rival) triggers the IRM which then communicates with the motor control circuits to ‘release’ a specific sequence of aggressive behaviours – the fixed action patterns.

Question 3

actions leading to a aggressive behaviour

Answer 3

Stimulus (showing teeth)

IRM (brain networks)

FAP (aggressive behaviour)

Question 4

Fixed action patterns (FAPS) can be characterised by five main features:

what are they?

B
U
U
S
S

Answer 4

Ballistic – once the behaviour is triggered, it cannot be changed or stopped
Universal – the same behaviour is shown in all members of the species
Unaffected by learning – the same for everyone regardless of experience
Single purpose – the behaviour only occurs in a specific situation and not in any other
Stereotyped – the behaviour always occurs in the same way

Question 5

Ethological aggression (A03)

Criticism of fixed action patterns for aggression.

Lehrman (1953)

Answer 5

Lehrman (1953) criticised Lorenz’s instinctual explanation of aggressive behaviour. Lehrman believed that Lorenz had underestimated the role of environmental factors in the development of species-typical aggressive behaviour patterns. These environmental factors (for example, aggressive peers or parents), interact with innate factors in complex ways. There are subtle variations between members of the same species in the production of aggressive behaviours, showing that patterns of aggressive behaviour are not as fixed as Lorenz claimed.

Question 6

Ethological aggression (A03)
Nisbett (1993)
Cultural differences in aggression.

Answer 6

Cultural differences in aggression. There is evidence that aggressive behaviour is more common in some human cultures than ¡n others. For example. Nisbett (1993) found there was a north-south divide in the United States for homicide rates. Killings are much more common amongst white males in the southern states than in the northern states. Because this was only true for reactive aggression (aggression triggered by arguments), Nisbett concluded that the difference in homicide rates was caused by a ‘culture of honour’, in other words the response to impulsive aggression was a learned social norm. This shows how culture/learning may play a role in aggression and therefore not be innate.

Question 7

The benefits of ritualised aggression.

Answer 7

The benefits of ritualised aggression. In non-human species, the main advantage of ritualised aggression is that it prevents conflicts escalating into potentially dangerous physical aggression. Anthropological evidence suggests that this advantage is also evident in human cultures.
For example, Chagnon (1992) describes how, among the Yanomamö people of South America, chest pounding and club fighting contests can settle a conflict before more extreme violence.
Similarly, Floebel (1967) found that, among Inuit Eskimos, ‘song duels’ are used to settle grudges and disputes. This shows that, violent cultures such as the Yanomamo, rituals have the effect of reducing actual aggression and preventing injury or death of the combatants.

Question 8

Evidence against ritualistic aggression.

Jane Goodall (2010)

Answer 8

The view that aggression has evolved into relatively physically harmless ritual has been challenged by observations made by Jane Goodall (2010) of chimpanzees at the Gombe Stream National Park ¡n Tanzania. During what she called the ‘four-year war’, male chimps from one community set about systematically killing all the members of another group. They did this in a coordinated way. On some occasions, a victim was held down by some rival chimpanzees while others hit and bit it in an attack lasting up to 20 minutes. The violence continued like this despite the fact that the victims were offering signals of appeasement and defencelessness. These signals did not inhibit the aggressive behaviour of the attacking chimps as predicted by the ethological explanation.

Question 9

Evolutionary reason for aggression (A01)

Sexual Jealousy

Answer 9

Sexual jealousy is a major motivator of aggressive behaviour in males which can be given an evolutionary explanation. This is because, unlike women, men can never be totally sure about whether or not they have truly fathered a child. This paternity uncertainty is a result of the very real threat for the male of cuckoldry (having to raise offspring that are not his own).
Any investment in offspring that do not share the male’s genes is a waste of his resources e.g. his time, effort, food etc. It contributes to survival of a rival’s genes and leaves the ‘father’ with fewer resources to invest in his own future offspring.

Men in our evolutionary past who could avoid cuckoldry were more reproductively successful. So psychological mechanisms have evolved to increase anti-cuckoldry behaviours in males such as sexual jealousy and possessive behaviours. This drives the often aggressive strategies men employ to retain their partners and prevent them from ‘straying’, strategies that were adaptive in our evolutionary history.

Question 10

Evolutionary explanations for aggression (A01)

Mate retention strategies

Wilson and Daly (1996)

Answer 10

Wilson and Daly (1996) identified strategies a male may prevent a female from ‘straying’ which involve aggression and even physical violence, including:

Direct guarding - involves male vigilance over a partner’s behaviour, for example checking who they’ve been seeing, coming home early, keeping tabs on their whereabouts, installing tracking apps on their mobiles, etc.

Negative inducements - such as issuing threats of dire consequences for infidelity e.g. ‘I’ll kill you if you cheat on me’. This can include verbal or physical abuse.
Gaslighting - This is a form of psychological abuse where someone is made to question their sanity, perception of reality, or memories. People experiencing gaslighting often feel confused, anxious, and unable to trust themselves, resulting in them becoming overly dependent on their partner (the ‘gaslighter’).

Question 11

Evolutionary explanations for aggression (A01

Bullying

Answer 11

Bullying
Bullying occurs because of a power imbalance: a more powerful individual uses aggression deliberately and repeatedly against a weaker person. Researchers have traditionally viewed bullying as a maladaptive behaviour, for example the result of poor social skills or childhood abuse.
However, our evolutionary ancestors may have used bullying as an adaptive strategy to increase their chances of survival by promoting their own health and creating opportunities for reproduction. Yolk et aI. (2012) argue that the characteristics associated with bullying behaviour are attractive to the opposite sex.
In males, it suggests dominance, acquisition of resources, and strength. It also has the benefit of warding off potential rivals. Therefore such behaviour would be naturally selected because these males would have greater reproductive success.

Question 12

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression (sexual jealousy and bullying) – AO3

research support Wilson et aI.link (1995)

Answer 12

Wilson et aI. (1995)

found that women who reported mate retention strategies in their partners (they agreed with statements like ‘He insists on knowing who you are with and where you are at all times’), were twice as likely to have suffered physical violence at the hands of their partners. Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives. This suggests that mate retention strategies and strongly linked to human aggression.

Question 13

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression (sexual jealousy and bullying) – AO3

gender differences

Answer 13

Evolutionary explanations account for gender differences. It is a common observation that males engage more often than females in most aggressive acts, especially physical aggression, i.e. there are gender differences. Evolutionary theory can explain this.

F Anne Campbell (1999) argues that a female with offspring is motivated to be less aggressive because such behaviour would put not only her own survival at risk but also that of her child.
So a more adaptive strategy for females is to use verbal aggression as a means of retaining a partner who provides resources, and to avoid becoming involved in life-threatening situations involving physical aggression (Buss and Shackelford 1997). This would also explain why women are more likely than men to use non-aggressive methods of resolving disputes. This ability to explain gender differences is a strength of evolutionary theory.

Question 14

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression (sexual jealousy and bullying) – AO3

Practical applications.

Answer 14

Bullying: An evolutionary understanding of bullying as an adaptive behaviour can help us to devise more effective anti-bullying interventions. Since bullying may not be a learnt behaviour, but rather innate, Volk et al. argued that anti bullying interventions need to increase the costs of bullying and the rewards of pro-social alternatives.
One method could be to encourage bullies to compete aggressively but fairly in sporting activities. This would give them the opportunity to display prowess, strength and other attractive qualities, including some not available to them through bullying.

Mate retention strategies: many organisations use knowledge of mate retention strategies to provide guidance and support to those who may be at risk of experiencing physical harm if these strategies escalate. This includes workshops in schools, as well as adverts highlighting mate retention strategies in action, and information as to where to find support.

Question 15

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression (sexual jealousy and bullying) – AO3

Alternative approach - SLT.

Kun San people

Answer 15

The SLT of aggression can explain differences in levels of aggression in different cultures. The ‘culture of violence’ theory proposes that some cultures emphasise and model aggressive behaviour whereas other cultures emphasise and model non-aggressive behaviour, and so are more likely to produce individuals with low levels of aggression.
For example, among the Kung San people of the Kalahari Desert, aggression is comparatively rare as Kung San parents do not use physical punishment and aggression is devalued by the society as a whole. The absence of aggressive models means there is little opportunity for the children to learn aggressive behaviour. This therefore suggests that perhaps an evolutionary explanation may not provide the best explanation but rather individuals modelling behaviour (either aggressive or non-aggressive) in the culture in which they live.

Question 16

Neural mechanisms in aggression (A01)

The limbic system and the prefrontal cortex.

Answer 16

The limbic system and prefrontal cortex
Aggression is the result of an interaction between a system of brain structures. It appears aggressive impulses are created in the limbic system (comprising of, amongst others, the hypothalamus and amygdala). The most important structure by far appears to be the amygdala (a-mig-dala). This has a key role in humans and nonhuman animals in how they respond to perceived environmental ‘threats’ and challenges. The activity of the amygdala in humans has proven to be an important predictor of aggressive behaviour. Aggression therefore seems to be linked to an underdeveloped (smaller than average) amygdala.

Question 17

apart from the amygdala, what else is linked to aggression neurologically.

Answer 17

In addition, another part of the circuit; the prefrontal cortex, is also stimulated by a threatening situation. In contrast to the primitive emotional amygdala, the prefrontal cortex is the rational part of the brain which is involved in impulse control and reasoning. Therefore, the prefrontal cortex usually exerts control over the aggressive urges created in the amygdala. Aggression may occur because of an underdeveloped prefrontal cortex.

Question 18

Neural mechanisms in aggression.

seratonin hypothesis (A01)

Answer 18

Serotonin is typically considered an inhibitory neurotransmitter – it slows down and dampens neuronal activity (from other neurotransmitters). Normal levels of serotonin in the orbitofrontal cortex is linked with reduced firing of neurons, and this is associated with a greater degree of behavioural self-control. Serotonin appears to allow effective communication between the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala. Therefore, if serotonin levels are lower, the prefrontal cortex is unable to effectively regulate the activity of the amygdala.

Question 19

Hormonal mechanisms in aggression (A01)

Answer 19

Testosterone

Research suggests that testosterone tends to be linked to higher levels of aggression at the points in life when the hormone is plentiful, for example, during puberty. This is a time when testosterone levels significantly increase, with adult males aged 15-25 having the highest levels.

It is believed that testosterone doesn’t necessarily cause someone to become aggressive, but rather amplifies pre-existing aggression. Testosterone lowers the threshold to which the amygdala judges threatening situations (e.g. a threatening face).

Mazur & Booth (1998) suggest testosterone plays a significant role in dominance, competition and anti-social behaviour, however the nature of the link between testosterone and aggressive behaviour is not a simple ‘cause and effect’ mechanism. It is suggested that higher levels of testosterone rather than causing aggression, make it more likely that a particular behaviour, such as aggression, will be expressed. Possibly due to impaired control.

Question 20

AO3 – Neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression.

Pardini (2014)

Answer 20

Evidence for the role of the amygdala in aggression. Pardini (2014) found that reduced amygdala volume can predict the development of severe and persistent aggression. They carried out a longitudinal study of male participants from childhood to adulthood. At age 26, those with lower amygdala volume showed higher levels of aggressive behaviour (the amygdala is not able to accurately judge environmental threats, and the individual becomes less ‘fearful’). The relationship remained even after other confounding variables were controlled. This suggests that the amygdala plays an important role in evaluating the emotional importance of sensory information.

Question 21

AO3 – Neural mechanisms in aggression.

Practical Application.

Badaway (2006)

Answer 21

Practical Application. The influence of neural mechanisms may have practical application in dealing with the well-established relationship between alcohol and aggressive behaviour. Badaway (2006) found that alcohol consumption caused major disturbances in levels of serotonin. In particular, acute (short term) alcohol intake depleted serotonin levels in normal individuals. In susceptible individuals, this depletion may result in aggressive behaviour as serotonin is essential in dampening down aggressive impulses.
This has practical application as it suggests that we should educate people with aggressive tendencies to reduce the amount of alcohol they consume, in order to avoid aggressive behaviour.

Question 22

AO3 – hormonal mechanisms in aggression.

Research support

Dabbs et al (1995)

Answer 22

Research support. Strong research comes from Dabbs et al (1995) who found a significant correlation to suggest there is a link between testosterone and aggression in offenders. Salivary testosterone was measured in a sample of 692 criminals.
It was found that those with the highest levels of testosterone had a history of violent crimes whereas those with the lowest levels were more likely to have committed non-violent crimes.
However, as the research is correlational, cause and effect cannot be established. For instance it cannot be stated that the increase of testosterone directly causes aggressive behaviour as other factors both biological and social (e.g. trauma) may have an influence too.

Question 23

AO3 – hormonal mechanisms in aggression.

Carre and Mehta’s (2011) cortisol mixed

Answer 23

The role of cortisol.

Evidence of the link between testosterone and aggression in humans is mixed. AO3 – hormonal mechanisms in aggression.

Carre and Mehta’s (2011) dual-hormone hypothesis attempts to explain why. They claim that high levels of testosterone lead to aggressive behaviour only when levels of cortisol are low. When cortisol is high, testosterone’s influence on aggression is blocked. This suggests that the combined activity of testosterone and cortisol may be a better predictor of human aggression than either hormone alone.

Question 24

genetic factors in aggression (A01)
MAO‘A’ gene

Answer 24

Psychologists have identified a ‘Candidate’ gene, located on the X chromosome that encodes the enzyme Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA). The enzyme produced breaks down important neurotransmitters such as serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine (monoamines). These neurotransmitters stabilise mood, aggression, and pleasure and imbalances are thought to increase the risk of engaging in aggressive anti-social behaviour. For example, noradrenaline is a neurotransmitter that raises blood pressure and increases alertness in the fight or flight response (leading to feelings of being on edge).
A normal level of MAOA makes these neurotransmitters inactive after they have carried the nerve impulses across the synapse. The production of this enzyme is determined by the MAOA gene. A dysfunction in the operation of this gene may lead to abnormal activity of the MAOA enzyme, which in turn affects levels of the neurotransmitters in the brain. One variant of the MAOA gene (nicknamed ‘the warrior gene’) leads to low MAOA activity in areas of the brain, and has been associated with various forms of aggressive behaviour.

Question 25

genetic factors in aggression (A01)

Coccaro et al. Twin studies

Answer 25

Twin studies
It is suggested that some people may be aggressive due to genetic inheritance; therefore researchers compare concordance rates (degree of similarity) for traits such as aggression between MZ & DZ twins. In one of the few studies that specifically studied the genetic transmission of aggression (rather than general anti-social behaviour) Coccaro et al concluded genes accounted for more than 50% of variance in general aggression. This means in any one individual, 50% of their aggression is a result of genes, suggesting that genes play an important part in aggressive behaviour.

Question 26

genetic factors in aggression (A03) family studies

Answer 26

Family Studies. Evidence to support that the gene for MAOA is linked to aggression comes from research by Brunner et al. He studied 28 male members of a Dutch family where several generations of the men had a history of aggressive and violent acts. Brunner et al found a ‘marker’ (glitch) on the X chromosome - The MAOA gene is very close to this marker. The marker was present for all the violent men but NOT for the non-violent ones.
It was believed that the aggressive behaviour seen in the men was a result of abnormal levels of serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine because of the defective MAOA. This was supported through urine tests which showed the men had imbalanced levels of the neurotransmitters and extraordinarily low levels of a by-product of MAOA (suggesting MAOA levels are very low also). This offers compelling evidence that aggression may be an inherited trait.

Question 27

genetic factors in aggression (A03)

sex differences.

Answer 27

MAOA may explain sex differences in aggressive behaviour. An advantage of gene research is that it offers an explanation for the uneven rates of violence for males and females. Niehoff (2014) suggest this may be a consequence of the differential genetic vulnerability that males and females have to MAOA gene. The MAOA gene is linked to the X chromosome. Women have two chromosomes, whereas men have only one. When men inherit an X-linked gene (from their mothers) they are more likely to be affected by it, whereas women inheriting the gene are generally unaffected as they also have a second X chromosome which prevents expression of the abnormal version of the MAOA gene). This could explain why males typically show more aggressive behaviour than females.

Question 28

genetic factors in aggression (A03)

Research support from adoption studies.

Answer 28

Research from adoption studies suggest that genes play a role in aggressive behaviour. Hutchings et al reviewed 14,000 adoptions and found that there was a significant positive correlation between the number of convictions for criminal violence among biological parents (particularly fathers) and their biological sons, despite the children being adopted at an early age. This shows compelling evidence for the biological nature of aggression.

Question 29

genetic factors in aggression (A03)

Gene-Environment interactions.

Answer 29

Gene-Environment interactions. Genes are clearly crucial influencers on aggressive behaviour but they do not function in isolation. It appears to be the case that low MAOA gene activity is only related to adult aggression when combined with early traumatic life events.
Frazzetto et al. (2007) found a link between higher levels of anti-social aggression and the low-activity MAOA gene variant in adult males, as expected. But this was only the case in those who had experienced significant trauma (such as sexual or physical abuse) during the first 15 years of life. Those who did not experience such abuse did not have particularly high levels of aggression as an adult, even if they had the low-activity MAOA variant. This is strong evidence of a gene-environment interaction (known as the diathesis-stress model).

Question 30

genetic factors in aggression (A03)

issues and debates

Answer 30

Additional issues and debates point: Reductionism. Morley et al argued that the genetic explanation is reductionist. They do not believe that reducing a complex behaviour down to simply genetics can accurately predict the complex behaviour and likelihood of aggressive behaviour.
For example, in Brunner’s Dutch family study, aggression amongst the male family members may be more wide spread because of shared environmental factors such as bad parenting and inappropriate role modelling as suggested by SLT, not genetic factors. This ultimately suggests that there are more influences on people and aggressive behaviour and this reductionist viewpoint of the ‘candidate gene’ is therefore limited.

Question 31

Frustration-aggression hypothesis – AO1

Answer 31

According to the model, frustration always leads to aggression. This hypothesis is based on the psychodynamic concept of catharsis (the process of releasing a build-up of emotion).
If our attempt to achieve a goal is blocked by some external factor, we experience frustration. This creates an aggressive drive , which leads to aggressive behaviour, such as physical violence. This is cathartic because the aggression created by the frustration is satisfied, thereby reducing the drive and making further aggression less likely.
We feel better for having gotten it ‘off our chest’. The hypothesis recognises that aggression is not always expressed directly against the source of frustration, for three reasons:
The cause of our frustration may be abstract (e.g. the economic situation or the government)
The cause may be too powerful and we risk punishment by aggressing against it (e.g. against a teacher)
The cause may just be unavailable at the time (e.g. a sibling has borrowed something but has gone out)
So our aggression is deflected (or ‘displaced’) onto an alternative — one that is not abstract, is weaker and is available (an inanimate object, perhaps, or a pet, or a younger sibling).

Question 32

Frustration-aggression hypothesis – AO3.

Berkowitz (1989).

evidence against.

Answer 32

Research evidence against the F-A Hypothesis: the role of environmental cues. According to Berkowitz (1989), frustration merely creates a readiness for aggression. But the presence of aggressive cues in the environment make acting upon this much more likely. Therefore cues are an additional element of the frustration- aggression hypothesis.
Student participants received electric shocks from a confederate, creating anger and frustration. The participants then had the opportunity to give shocks back to the confederate. It was found when the level of shocks significantly increased with the presence of two guns on the table next to the shock machine. This supports the idea that the presence of aggressive environmental cues stimulates aggression, not purely frustration.

Question 33

Frustration-aggression hypothesis – AO3.

research against

Bushman (2002)

Answer 33

Aggression may not be cathartic. The theory states that aggression will lead to a reduction in frustration. However, Bushman (2002) found that participants who vented their anger by repeatedly hitting a punch-bag actually became more angry and aggressive rather than less. In fact, doing nothing was more effective at reducing aggression than venting anger. Bushman argues that using venting to reduce anger is like using petrol to put out a fire. This casts doubt on the validity of a central assumption of the hypothesis.

Question 34

Frustration-aggression hypothesis – AO3.

Justified and unjustified frustration.

Dill and Anderson (1995)

Answer 34

Justified and unjustified frustration. Dill and Anderson (1995) showed that different kinds of frustration have different effects. An experimenter showed participants how to perform a paper-folding task (origami). The experimenter made the demonstration difficult to follow by going too quickly, creating frustration.
In the unjustified condition he said he had to hurry because his girlfriend was waiting for him, in the justified condition he said his boss had told him to finish quickly. The unjustified frustration produced the most aggression (measured in terms of negative judgements of the experimenter). This suggests that whilst frustration does appear to lead to aggression, the type of frustration may be a more important factor in the level of aggression shown.

Question 35

Mediational processes involved in aggression

Answer 35

Bandura points out that four cognitive conditions are needed for observational learning to take place:
Attention: a basic cognitive requirement is that the observer must pay attention to the model’s aggressive actions.
Retention: the observer also needs to be able to remember the model’s aggressive actions, to form a symbolic mental representation of how the behaviour is performed.
Reproduction: the individual must be able to transform the mental representation of the aggressive behaviour into actual physical action. This involves the individual mentally appraising his or her ability to do this.
Motivation: the individual needs a reason to imitate the behaviour, which will depend on his or her expectations that behaving aggressively in a specific way in a specific situation will be rewarding.

Question 36

Social Learning Theory – AO1 on aggression

Answer 36

Direct learning

Bandura acknowledged that aggression can be learned directly, through mechanisms of operant conditioning involving positive and negative reinforcement and punishment. So a child who angrily snatches a toy off another child, for example, is likely to learn that aggressive behaviour brings positive results (e.g. the toy). This direct reinforcement makes it more likely that the child will do this again in a similar situation.

Observational learning and vicarious reinforcement
Children (and adults to a lesser extent) acquire specific aggressive behaviours through observing aggressive models, such as siblings, parents, peers, and characters in the media. As well as observing the behaviour of models, children also observe the consequences of their behaviour. If the model’s aggressive behaviour is rewarded (or at least not punished), then the child learns that aggression can be effective in getting what they want. This is known as vicarious reinforcement, and it makes it more likely that the observing child will imitate the model’s aggressive behaviour.

Question 37

Social Learning Theory – AO3

Bandura et al.’s (1961)

Answer 37

Social Learning Theory – AO3

Research into social learning of aggression. Bandura et al.’s (1961) famous Bobo doll study supports the concept of aggression being learnt through observation and imitation. Young children individually observed an adult model assaulting an inflatable plastic toy called a ‘Bobo doll’. The aggressive behaviours included throwing, kicking, hitting with a mallet.
They were then taken to another room where there was a Bobo doll, plus some other toys including ones the adult model had used. Without being instructed to do so, many of these children imitated the behaviour they had seen performed by the model, physically and verbally – often virtually a direct copy of what the children had observed, including the use of specific objects and verbal phrases. There was also another group of children who had observed an adult interacting non-aggressively with the doll. Aggressive behaviour towards the Bobo doll by these children was almost non-existent. This supports the idea that observation of an aggressive role model may result in aggressive behaviour.

Question 38

Social Learning Theory – AO3

Supporting research – identification.

Answer 38

Supporting research – identification. François Poulin and Michel Boivin (2000) applied a social learning analysis to aggressive behaviour in boys aged between nine and twelve years. They found that most aggressive boys formed friendships with other aggressive boys. These friendships were lasting, stable, and mutually reinforcing of aggression. This means that they were exposed frequently to models of physical aggression (i.e. each other) and to the positive consequences of it. They also gained reinforcement from the rewarding approval of the rest of the ‘gang’. These are precisely the conditions under which social learning theory predicts that aggressive behaviour would occur

Question 39

Social Learning Theory – AO3

Explaining Cultural Differences in Aggressive Behaviour

Answer 39

Explaining Cultural Differences in Aggressive Behaviour. The SLT of aggression can explain differences in levels of aggression in different cultures. The ‘culture of violence’ theory proposes that some cultures emphasise and model aggressive behaviour whereas other cultures emphasise and model non-aggressive behaviour, and so are more likely to produce individuals with low levels of aggression.
For example, among the Kung San people of the Kalahari Desert, aggression is comparatively rare as Kung San parents do not use physical punishment and aggression is devalued by the society as a whole. The absence of aggressive models means there is little opportunity for the children to learn aggressive behaviour. This therefore suggests that cultural differences in levels of aggressive behaviour can be explained by individuals modelling behaviour (either aggressive or non-aggressive) in the culture in which they live thus offering strong support to the social learning teory explanation.

Question 40

Social Learning Theory – AO3

Alternative Explanation.

Answer 40

Alternative Explanation. One criticism of SLT is that although social learning theory concepts, like modelling are useful in explaining aggression, it is clearly a product of much more than social learning alone. Biological explanations of aggression have stressed factors unrelated to social learning. High levels of testosterone have been cited as a primary causal agent in aggressive behaviour. Dabbs et al (1995) found that prisoners with the highest levels of testosterone had a history of violent crimes whereas those with the lowest levels were more likely to have committed non-violent crimes. This suggests that a complex behaviour like aggression is likely to be a combination of biological and environmental factors.

Question 41

Deindividuation A01.

Answer 41

Crowd behaviour

Deindividuation is a concept originally used to explain the behaviour of individuals in crowds. Usually, because we are easily identified by others, our behaviour is constrained by social norms, and we live in a society where most forms of aggressive behaviour are discouraged. But when we become part of a crowd, we lose restraint and have the freedom to behave in ways we wouldn’t otherwise contemplate. We lose our senses of both individual self- identity and responsibility for our behaviour, and we have a greater disregard for norms and even laws.

Zimbardo (1969) distinguished between individuated and de-individuated behaviour:
In an individuated state, our behaviour is generally rational and normative (i.e. it conforms to social norms)
De-individuated behaviours are emotional, impulsive and irrational; most importantly, they are anti-normative and disinhibited.

Question 42

two types of self-awareness:

Answer 42

Private self-awareness - concerns how we pay attention to our own feelings and behaviour. This is reduced when we are part of a crowd. Our attention becomes focused outwardly to the events around us, so we pay less attention to our own beliefs and feelings.

Public self-awareness - refers to how much we care about what other people think of our behaviour, and this is also reduced in crowds. We realise that we are just one individual amongst many; we are anonymous and our behaviour is less likely to be judged by others.

Question 43

Deindividuation – AO3

Research support for deindividuation.

Answer 43

Douglas and McGarty (2001) looked at aggressive online behaviour in chat-rooms and uses of instant messaging. They found a strong correlation between anonymity and ‘flaming’ (posting threatening and hostile messages. The most aggressive messages were sent by those who chose to hide their real identities.
This suggests the existence of a link between anonymity, deindividuation and aggressive behaviour in a context that has even greater relevance today.

Question 44

Deindividuation – AO3

Research by Zimbardo

Answer 44

Supporting Research. Research by Zimbardo supports the theory of deindividuation. He conducted a laboratory experiment using female undergraduates in a ‘study of learning’. Zimbardo found that participants in the deindividuated group (participants wore large laboratory coats with hoods over their faces and were never referred to by name) gave twice as many shocks as the participants in the second group (participants wore their normal clothes and were given large name tags). This illustrates that anonymity is a key component of the de-individuation process and increases aggression.

Question 45

Deindividuation – AO3

De-individuation and the effect of social roles

Answer 45

De-individuation and the effect of social roles
Robert Johnson and Leslie Downing (1979) conducted a study where female participants had to give (fake) electric shocks to a confederate. In one condition, the participants were dressed in a Ku Klux Klan-type outfit, with masks hiding their faces. Participants in another condition dressed as nurses (also with faces covered), and a third group (control) wore their own clothes with their faces not covered. Compared with the control group. The KKK-dressed participants gave more (and more intense) electric shocks, and the ‘nurses’ gave fewer at lower levels. The researchers also noted that the nurses were more compassionate towards their ‘victim’, in line with the pro-social role associated with a nurse’s uniform. This suggests that perceived social roles may be more important than deindividuation when deciding how to act

Question 46

Deindividuation – AO3

Cultural research.

Answer 46

Support for the influence of deindividuation comes from Watson who collected data on the extent to which warriors in 23 societies changed their appearance prior to going to war, and the extent to which they killed, tortured or mutilated their victims. Watson found that those societies where warriors changed their appearance (e.g. through war paint, tribal costumes, etc.) were more destructive towards their victims compared to those who did not change their appearance. This supports the idea that de-individuation results in aggression.

Question 47

media influence on aggression (A01)

Desensitisation

Answer 47

Desensitisation
Normally when we witness violent actions we experience physiological arousal associated with the sympathetic nervous system, such as increased heart rate, higher blood pressure, greater sweat activity etc. But when children in particular repeatedly view aggression on TV or play violent computer games, they become habituated (used to/comfortable) to its effects of this activation. So a stimulus that is usually aversive has a lessening impact over time, resulting in a reduction of anxiety and physiological arousal on repeated viewing or playing.
This desensitisation is psychological as well as physiological. Repeated exposure to violent media promotes a belief that using aggression as a method of resolving conflict is socially acceptable. Consequently, when an individual then shows aggression in real life they do not receive the same negative physiological arousal and so are more likely to show the behaviour again.

Question 48

media influence on aggression (A01)

Disinhibition

Answer 48

Disinhibition
Most people generally hold the view that violence and aggression are antisocial and harmful. Consequently, there are powerful social and psychological inhibitions against using aggression to resolve interpersonal conflicts.
These are learned, directly and indirectly, by processes explained by social learning theory (parents, peers, media). According to the disinhibition explanation, these usual restraints are loosened after exposure to violent media. Aggressive behaviours are often made to appear ’normal’ in such media, especially if portrayals minimise the effects of violence on its victims and suggest that it is justified. It is not unusual for video games to show violence being rewarded at the same time as its consequences are minimised or ignored. This creates new social norms in the viewer which then may lead to aggression being shown in real life.

Question 49

media influence on aggression (A01)

Answer 49

Cognitive priming
Repeated viewing of aggressive media, especially game playing, can provide us with a ‘script’ about how violent situations may ‘play out’. According to Huesmann (1998), this script is stored in our memory, and so we become ‘ready’ or primed to be aggressive. The process is mostly automatic; it can direct our behaviour without us even being aware of it.
The script is triggered when we encounter cues in a situation that we perceive as aggressive. The more accessible a thought or idea, the more likely it is to be used to interpret social information. Frequent activation through prolonged exposure to violent media may result in lowered activation threshold (more likely to show aggression from less of a trigger), which leads to early activation and therefore more aggression.

Question 50

Desensitisation, Disinhibition and Cognitive Priming – AO3

disinhibiton

Research support

Answer 50

Research support for desensitisation. Krahé et aI. (2011) showed participants violent film clips while measuring physiological arousal using skin conductance. Participants who were habitual viewers of violent media showed lower levels of arousal as they watched the violent film clips.
They also reported higher levels of pleasant arousal and lower levels of anxious arousal. Lower arousal was correlated with unprovoked (proactive) aggression in a ‘noise blast’ task. These findings confirm hypotheses based on desensitisation.

Question 51

Desensitisation, Disinhibition and Cognitive Priming – AO3

Question 52

Desensitisation, Disinhibition and Cognitive Priming – AO3

Answer 52

Research support for disinhibition. Berkowitz and Alioto (1973) found that participants who saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance (aggression shown in retaliation) gave more (fake) electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate.
This is because vengeance is a powerful justification for violence, and justified violence is more likely to be seen as socially acceptable. This adds validity to the disinhibition concept because it demonstrates the link between removal of social constraints and subsequent aggressive behaviour, at least in the case of justified aggression.

Question 53

Desensitisation, Disinhibition and Cognitive Priming – AO3

cognitive priming research support.

Answer 53

Research support for cognitive priming. A study that illustrates the priming of aggressive scripts in memory was carried out by Fischer and Greitemeyer (2006). They looked at the priming of aggressive scripts in memory by investigating song lyrics.
Male participants listened to songs featuring aggressively derogatory lyrics about women. Compared with when they listened to neutral lyrics, participants subsequently recalled more negative qualities about women and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate. This procedure was replicated with female participants, using ‘men-hating’ song lyrics, with similar results.

Question 54

Computer games on aggression A03

Experimental support

Answer 54

Experimental support: In a lab-based study by Bartholow and Anderson (2002), students played either a violent computer game (Mortal Kombat) or a nonviolent game (PGA Tournament Golf) for ten minutes. They all then carried out the Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Task (TCRTT), a standard laboratory measure of aggression in which the students delivered blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to punish a (non-existent) opponent. Those who played the violent game selected significantly higher noise levels compared with the nonviolent players. This shows that those exposed to violent media are more likely to display aggressive behaviour to another individual.

Question 55

Computer games on aggression A03

Correlational support

Answer 55

Correlational support: Matt DeLisi et aI. (2013) studied 227 juvenile offenders, all with histories of serious aggressive behaviours such as hitting a teacher or parent, or gang fighting. Using structured interviews, they gathered data on several measures of aggression and violent computer game-playing. They found that the offenders’ aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games and how much they enjoyed them. This demonstrates a link between aggression and exposure to violent video games.

Question 56

Computer games on aggression A03

publication bias.

Answer 56

General evaluation: publication bias. There is a well-known tendency in scientific research towards publishing only findings that are scientifically significant (in this case, studies that find a significant effect of violent computer games on aggression). This is known as the file drawer phenomenon. This is a problem for meta-analyses, because they generally only include published studies, and so therefore may not give an accurate picture of effects of video games on aggression.

Question 57

institutional aggression in the context of prisons

Dispositional explanations: the importation model – AO1

Answer 57

Dispositional explanations: the importation model – AO1
The importation model argues that prisons are not completely insulated from the happenings of everyday life outside in the ‘real world’. After all, it is the real world from which prison inmates come and they bring with them a subculture typical of criminality. This includes beliefs, values, norms, attitudes, and a history of learning experiences as well as other personal characteristics such as gender, race and class.

Question 58

institutional aggression in the context of prisons

Situational explanations: The deprivation model – AO1

Clemmer’s (1958)

Answer 58

the deprivation model places the causes of institutional aggression within the prison environment itself, i.e. a situational explanation. Harsh prison conditions are stressful for inmates, who have to cope by resorting to aggressive and often violent behaviour.

These conditions include:
Overcrowding – A government report in 2014 attributed the record rates of murder, suicide and assaults to the increased overcrowding in British prisons. This is mainly due to lack of privacy and personal space.

Heat and noise – Prisons tend to be hot and noisy places. High temperatures and noise worsen the effects of overcrowding and influence inmates to showing aggressive behaviour.

Deprivation of material goods - This increases competition amongst inmates to acquire them, and is accompanied by a corresponding increase in aggression.

Question 59

institutional aggression in the context of prisons (A03) - importation model

Research into the importation model. DeLisi et al (2011)

Answer 59

Research into the importation model. DeLisi et al (2011) studied 813 juvenile delinquents confined in institutions in California. These were inmates who brought into prison several personally negative dispositional features such as experiences of childhood trauma, high levels of anger, and a history of violent behaviour.
These inmates were more likely to engage in suicidal activity and sexual misconduct, and committed more acts of physical violence that were brought to the attention of the parole board (compared with a control group of inmates with fewer negative dispositional features). This suggests that perhaps such external factors and brought into the prison leading to greater aggression.

Question 60

institutional aggression in the context of prisons (A03) - importation model

Alternative explanation – administrative control model (ACM).

John Dilulio (1991

Answer 60

Alternative explanation – administrative control model (ACM). John Dilulio (1991) claims that the importation model is an inadequate explanation of aggressive behaviour because it ignores the roles of prison officials and factors relating to the running of prisons. He proposes an Administrative Control Model (ACM) which states that poorly managed prisons are more likely to experience the most serious forms of inmate violence, including homicides and rioting.
Poor management is characterised by several factors including weak and indecisive leadership, a thriving culture of informal rules, staff who remain distant from inmates, and few opportunities for education. According to the ACM, these factors are more influential in determining aggression than inmate characteristics.

Question 61

institutional aggression in the context of prisons (A03) - deprivation model

Answer 61

Research into the deprivation model. Individual-level factors are reliable predictors of aggression independent of the prison environment, but research shows that some situational variables are also influential.
Cunningham et al. (2010) analysed 35 inmate homicides in Texas prisons and found that motivations for the behaviours were linked to some of the deprivations identified by Clemmer. Particularly important were arguments over personal possessions, drugs, and homosexual relationships. As these are factors predicted by the model to make aggression more likely, these findings support its validity.

Question 62

institutional aggression in the context of prisons (A03) - deprivation model

Contradictory research

Answer 62

Contradictory research – the impact of conjugal visits. The deprivation model predicts that a lack of freedom and heterosexual contact should lead to high levels of aggressive behaviour in prisons. However the available evidence does not support this. For example, Hensley et al. (2002) studied 256 male and female inmates of two prisons in Mississippi, a state of the USA which allows conjugal visits (that is, visits from partners specifically to have sex). There was no link between involvement in these visits and reduced aggressive behaviour. This shows that situational factors do not affect prison violence.

Question 63

institutional aggression in the context of prisons (A03)

General evaluation point - interactionist model

Answer 63

General evaluation point - interactionist model
Importation and deprivation models are both supported and challenged by research evidence. Perhaps both models are valid. For instance, Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando (2002) suggest:
The importation model is a better explanation of violence between inmates,
And the deprivation model is more useful in understanding inmate aggression against prison staff.
Dobbs and Waid (2004) argue in favour of an interactionist model. Inmates entering prison for the first time will suffer deprivation. But deprivation does not necessarily lead to violence unless or until it combines with the individual characteristics imported into the prison by inmates, and which influence the prison’s culture.