after midterm 2 Flashcards
(128 cards)
1
Q
what is the main function of the immune system
A
protects us from infectious agents and harmful substances
2
Q
example of innate immunity (non specific internal defences)
A
physiologic responses (inflammation, fever)
3
Q
how are antibodies released in adaptive immunity
A
plasma cells synthesize and release them
4
Q
what are bacteria
A
single celled prokaryotes
5
Q
varied types of bacteria
A
spherical
rodlike
coiled
6
Q
some bacteria are _____ while others are ____
A
harmless
virulent
7
Q
what do virulent bacteria do
A
contain pili, capsule, or release toxins or damaging enzymes
8
Q
examples of virulent bacteria
A
tetanus
strep
9
Q
what is a virus
A
piece of DNA or RNA in a protein shell
10
Q
what must a virus enter in order to reproduce
A
a cell
11
Q
examples of viruses
A
cold, ebola, chicken pox
12
Q
what is fungi
A
eukaryotic cells with membrane and cell wall
13
Q
examples of fungi
A
mold, yeast, multicellular fungi that produce spores
14
Q
what do fungi release and what does this do
A
release proteolytic enzymes which induces inflammation
15
Q
what can fungi infect
A
mucosal linings (ex: yeast infection) or cause internal infections (ex: histoplasmosis - lung infection)
16
Q
what are protozoans
A
eukaryotic cells without a cell wall
17
Q
how are protozoans ingested
A
by drinking infected water
18
Q
protozoan disease examples
A
malaria
trichomoniasis
19
Q
what are multicellular parasites
A
nonmicroscopic parasites that take nourishment from host
ex: tapeworm
20
Q
what are prions
A
fragments of infectious proteins
-neither cells nor viruses
21
Q
what do prions do
A
cause disease in nervous tissue
(ex: mad cow disease - spreads from cows to humans by consuming infected meat)
22
Q
primary location of:
T & B lymphocytes
macrophages
dendritic cells
NK cells
A
lymphatic tissue
23
Q
primary location of alveolar macrophages
A
select organs
24
Q
primary location of dendritic cells
A
skin and mucosal membranes
25
primary location of mast cells
connective tissue throughout body
26
what are cytokines and what type of immunity produces them
small proteins that regulate immune activity
-produced by both innate and adaptive
27
explain how cytokines work
1. chemical messengers are released from one cell that bind to receptors of target cells
2. they can act on the cell that:
-released it
-on local cells
-on distant cells after going through blood
28
effects of cytokines
1. signalling cells
2. controlling development and behaviour of immune cells
3. regulates inflammatory response
4. destroys cells
29
how do adaptive and innate immunity differ
1. cells involved
2. specificity of cell response
3. mechanisms of eliminating harmful substances
4. response time
30
innate immunity
present at birth (passed on from mom)
-protects against different substances
-responds right away to potentially harmful agents
31
adaptive immunity
acquired immediately
-response to antigen involves specific T & B lymphocytes
-takes a few days
32
characteristics of inmate immunity
1. stops potentially harmful substances from entering
2. responds to a range of harmful substances
3. first line of defense is skin and mucosal membrane
4. second line of defence involved internal processes
33
what % of our blood is immune cells
less than 1 %
34
cells of innate immunity
basophil and mast cell
natural killer cell
eosinophils
35
basophil and mast cell
proinflammatory chemical secreting cells
36
NK cell
apoptosis-initiating cells (get rid of dead cells)
37
eosinophils
parasite destroying cells
38
antimicrobial proteins
molecules that function against microbes
39
interferons
class of cytokines that nonspecifically interfere w spread of intracellular pathogens
40
how to interferons work
1. IFN-alpha and beta are produced by leukocytes and virus infected cells which then bind to neighbouring cells to prevent their function
2. trigger synthesis of enzymes that destroy viral nucleic acids, inhibit synthesis or viral proteins
3. stimulate NK cells to destroy virus infected cells
4. IFN-g produces by T lymphocytes and NK cells
5. stimulates macrophages to destroy virus infected cells
41
what is the complement system
group of over 30 plasma proteins
-work along with complement antibodies
- synthesized by liver, constantly released in inactive form
-complement activation follows pathogen entry
42
effects of activated complement
inflammation:
enhanced by complement
-activates mast cells and basophils; attracts neutrophils and macrophages
opsonization:
complement protein binds to pathogen
-enhances likelihood of phagocytosis of pathogenic cell
cytolysis:
complement triggers splitting of target cell
-complement proteins form MAC that creates channel in target cells membrane
elimination of immune complexes:
complement links antigen-antibody complexes to erythrocytes
-cells move to liver and spleen where complexes are stripped off
43
cardinal signs of inflammation
1. redness from increased blood flow
2. heat from increased blood flow and increased metabolic activity within the area
3. swelling from increase I fluid loss from capillaries
4. pain from stimulant of pain receptors
5. loss of function from pain and swelling in severe cases
44
duration if acute inflammation
8-10 days
45
what is a fever
abnormal body temp elevation (1 degree or more above 37 degrees c
46
what does a fever result from
release of pyrogens form immune cells or infectious agents
47
events of a fever
1. pyrogens circulate through blood and target hypothalamus
2. hypothalamus releases prostaglandin E2
3. hypothalamus raises temp set point leading to fever
48
3 fever stages
1. onset
2. stadium
3. defervescence
49
onset stage of fever
temp starts to rise
-hypothalamus stimulates dermis blood vessels to constrict (less heat loss)
-shivering of muscle generates more heat
50
stadium stage of fever
elevated temp is maintained
-metabolic rate increases to promote elimination of harmful substances
-liver and spleen bind zinc and iron thereby slowing microbial reproduction
51
defervescence stage of fever
when temp returns to normal
-hypothalamus no longer stimulates by pyrogens
-prostaglandin release decreases
-hypothalamus stimulates mechanisms to release heat (sweat)
52
benefits of fever
1. inhibits reproduction of bacteria and viruses
2. promotes interferon activity
3. increases activity of adaptive immunity
4. accelerates tissue repair
5. increases CAMs on endothelium of capillaries in lymph nodes
6. recommended to leave a low fever untreated
53
risks of a high fever
dangerous is its 103F in children or lower in adults
-seizure
- irreversible brain damage
-death
54
what are the two branches of adaptive immunity
cell mediated immunity
humeral immunity
55
why are pathogens detected by lymphocytes
bc they contain antigens
56
what is an antigen
substance that binds a t lymphocyte or antibody
-usually a protein or large polysaccharide
57
examples of antigens
protein capsid of viruses
cell wall of bacteria or fungi
bacterial toxins
abnormal protein or tumour antigens
58
foreign antigens
differ from human body molecules
-binds immune components
59
self antigens
body own molecules
-dont bind immune components
60
antigenic determinant
specific site on antigen recognized by immune system
61
immunogen
antigen that induces an immune response
62
immunogenicity
ability to trigger response
63
haptens
small foreign molecules that induce immune response when attached to carrier molecule in host
64
example of a hapten
toxin in poison ive
65
what are the antigen receptors of both T & B lymphocytes
T: TCR (T cell receptor)
B: BCR (B cell receptor)
66
lymphocyte contact w antigen
- B lymphocytes make direct contact w antigen
- T lymphocytes have antigen presented by some other cell
67
T lymphocyte subtypes
helper t lymphocytes are CD4+ cells
cytotoxic t lymphocytes are CD8+ cells
memory T cells and regulatory T cells
68
helper t lymphocytes do what
assist in cell mediated, humeral, and innate immunity
69
cytotoxic t lymphocytes
release chemicals that destroy other cells
70
antigen presentation
cells display antigen on plasma membrane so T cells can recognize it
71
which two categories of cells present antigens
all nucleated cells of body
antigen presenting cells
72
what is major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
a group of transmembrane proteins
73
where is MHC I found
on all nucleated cells
74
where is MHC II found
on antigen presenting cells (APC's) in addition to MHC I
75
pulmonary ventilation
movement of gases between atmosphere and alveoli
76
pulmonary gas exchange
exchange of gases between alveoli and blood
77
gas transport
transport of gases in blood b/w lungs and systemic cells
78
tissue gas exchange
exchange of respiratory gases b/w blood and the systemic cells
79
Boyles gas law
relationship of volume and pressure
-at constant temp, pressure of a gas decreases if volume of the container increases and vice versa
-p1 and v1 represent initial conditions and p2 and v2 the changed conditions
80
atmospheric pressure
pressure of air in environment
81
alveolar volume
collective volume of alveoli
82
intrapulmonary pressure
pressure in alveoli
-fluctuates w breathing
83
intrapleural pressure
pressure in pleural cavity
-fluctuates w breathing
84
how does air flow in during inspiration
thoracic vol increases, thoracic pressure decreases
85
how does air flow out during expiration
thoracic volume decreases, thoracic pressure increases
86
quiet inspiration steps
1. diaphragm and external intercostals contract increasing thoracic volume
2. diaphragm movement accounts for 2/3 of volume change; external intercostal movement account for 1/3
3. intrapleural vol increases, so intrapleural pressure decreases
4. lungs pulled by pleurae, so lung vol increases and intrapulmonary pressure decreases
5. because intrapulmonary pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, air flows in until these pressures are equal
87
quiet expiration steps
1. diaphragm and external intercostals relax decreasing thoracic vol
2. pleural cavity vol decreases, so intrapleural pressure increases
3. elastic recoil pulls lungs inward, so alveolar vol decreases and intrapulmonary pressure increases
4. since intrapulmonary pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, air flows out until these pressures are equal
88
forced breathing
-requires contraction of additional mm
-causes greater changes in thoracic cavity volume and intrapulmonary pressure
-more air moves into and out of the lungs
-significant chest volume changes are apparent
89
2 groups of medulla respiratory centre
ventral rest group (ant medulla)
dorsal resp group (post medulla)
90
irritant receptors
in air passageways stimulated by particulate matter
91
baroreceptors
in pleurae and bronchioles respond to stretch
92
proprioceptors of mm and joints are stimulates by what
body movements
93
physiology of quiet breathing
-inspiration begins when VRG inspiratory neurons fire spontaneously
-signals are sent from VRG to nerve pathways exciting skeletal muscles for about 2 secs
-quiet expiration occurs when VRG is inhibited
-signals no longer sent to inspiratory mm for 3 seconds
94
reflexes that alter breathing rate and depth
-chemoreceptors alter breathing by sending signals to DRG which are then relayed to VRG
-ventilation increases in response to central chemoreceptors detecting increase in blood H or PCO2 and peripheral chemoreceptors detecting increase in blood H or PCO2
-increased ventilation expels more CO2 returning conditions to normal
-ventilation decreases if chemoreceptors detect decreases in H or PCO2
95
minute ventilation
-process of moving air into and out of lungs
-amount of air moved b/w atmosphere and alveoli in 1 min
96
tidal vol
amount of air per breath
97
resp rate
number of breaths per min
98
tidal vol x respiration rate = ?
minute ventilation
99
anatomic dead space: conducting zone space
no exchange of respiratory gases
100
alveolar ventilation
amount of air reaching alveoli per min
(tidal volume - anatomic dead space) x resp rate = alveolar ventilation
101
physiologic dead space
-normal anatomic dead space + any loss of alveoli
-some disorders decrease number of alveoli participating in age exchange
-anatomic dead space = physiologic dead space in healthy individual where loss of alveoli is minimal
102
low FEV causes what
problem w air escaping lungs, esp at high velocities
103
low FVC causes what
problem w air escaping at all points
104
low FEV causes what
lung damage
105
low FVC causes what
low compliance
106
partial pressure
pressure exerted by each gas within a mixture of gases measured in mm Hg
107
daltons law
total pressure in a mix of gases is equal to the sum of the individual partial pressures
108
reasons partial pressures in alveoli differ from atmospheric partial pressures
1. air from environment mixes w air remaining in anatomic dead space
2. O2 diffuses out of alveoli into blood; CO2 diffuses from blood into alveoli
3. more water vapor is present in alveoli than in atmosphere
109
partial pressure gradients
gradient exits the partial pressure for a gas is higher in one region of the respiratory system than another
110
alveolar gas exchange
b/w blood in pulmonary capillaries and alveoli
111
systemic gas exchange
b/w blood in systemic capillaries and systemic cells
112
ventilation perfusion coupling
ability of bronchioles to regulate airflow and arterioles to regulate blood flow
113
what does bloods ability to transport depend on
-solubility coefficient of O2
-presence of hemoglobin
114
CO2 3 means of transport
1. CO2 dissolved in plasm
2. CO2 attached to amine group of global portion of hemoglobin
3. bicarbonate dissolved in plasma
115
what does hemoglobin transports
-O2 attached to iron
-carbon dioxide bound to the global
-H ions bound to the global
116
hemoglobin and binding of O2
each hemoglobin can bind up to four O2 molecules
117
cooperative binding effect
each O2 that binds causes a change in hemoglobin making it easier for next O2 to bind
118
as Po2 (mm Hg) increases, so does what
percent o2 saturation of hemoglobin
119
altitude sickness
-adverse physiologic effects from a decrease in alveolar pO2 and low O2 saturation
-symptoms of headache, nausea, pulmonary oedema, and cerebral edema
120
O2 reserve
O2 remaining bound to hemoglobin after passing through systemic circulation
121
CO2 binding to hemoglobin
binding causes release of more O2 from hemoglobin
122
H binding to hemoglobin
-H ion binds to hemoglobin and causes a conformational change
-causes decreased affinity for O2 and o2 release
123
components of the urinary system
kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
124
kidney function
filter blood, remove waste products and convert filtrate into pee
125
function of ureters
transports urine from kidneys to bladder
126
bladder function
expandable muscular sac stress much as 1L urine
127
urethra function
eliminates pee
128
processes that occur as filtrate is converted to urine
-elimination of metabolic wastes
-regulation of ion levels
-regulation of acid base balance
-regulation oc BP
-elimination of biologically active molecules
