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Reproduction, development and ageing > Adolescence and early adulthood > Flashcards

Adolescence and early adulthood Flashcards

1
Q

What age range counts as early adolescence?

A

11-14 years.

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2
Q

What age range counts as middle adolescence?

A

14-17 years.

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3
Q

What age range counts as late adolescence?

A

18+

18-24? Varies.

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4
Q

What is puberty?

A

Process of physical changes through which a child’s body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction.

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5
Q

What initiates puberty?

A

Initiated by hormonal signals from brain to gonads (ovaries and testes).
Gonads produce further hormones to stimulate development.

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6
Q

What is adrenarche?

A

Occurs prior to onset of puberty.
Increase in adrenal androgen production.
Occurs between ages 6-10.

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7
Q

What is menarche?

A

Onset of first menstrual cycle.

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8
Q

What is the age of puberty onset and what does it depend upon?

A

Age of onset consistently lowering- about 12 or 13 now.
Every decade from 1840-1950 drop of 4 months in Western European girls.
Multifactorial.
Cultural variation.
Precocious puberty.
Delayed puberty.

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9
Q

What physical changes occur in girls in puberty?

A 
Breast budding
Growth of pubic hair
Growth spurt
First period (menarche)
Growth of underarm hair
Change in body shape
Adult breast size
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10
Q

What physical changes occur in boys in puberty?

A 
Growth of scrotum and testes
Change in voice
Lengthening of the penis
Growth of pubic hair
Growth spurt
Change in body shape
Growth of facial and underarm hair
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11
Q

At what age is the mean peak height increase in girls and boys in puberty?

A

Girls: 12 years.
Boys: 14 years.

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12
Q

What hormones are involved in puberty?

A 
Neurokin 8 (tachykinin peptide) and kisspeptin (neuropeptide)
GnRH
LH
FSH
Testosterone
Oestradiol
IGF1
Leptin
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13
Q

What is the function of neurokin 8 (tachykinin peptide) and kisspeptin (neuropeptide) in puberty?

A

Present in the same hypothalamic neurons.

Critical parts of the control system that switches on GnRH.

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14
Q

What is the function of GnRH in puberty?

A

Peptide hormone from hypothalamus.

Stimulates gonadotropic cells of anterior pituitary.

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15
Q

What is the function of LH in puberty?

A

Protein hormone from anterior pituitary.

Targets Leydig cells (testes) and theca cells (ovaries).

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16
Q

What is the function of FSH in puberty?

A

Protein hormone from anterior pituitary.

Targets ovarian follicles, Sertoli cells and spermatogenic tissue.

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17
Q

What is the function of testosterone in puberty?

A

Steroid hormone from Leydig cells mainly.

Primary androgen.

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18
Q

What is the function of oestradiol in puberty?

A

Steroid hormone.

Acts on oestrogen receptors in the body.

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19
Q

What is the function of IGF1 in puberty?

A

Rises in response to growth hormone.

Possible principle mediator of growth spurt.

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20
Q

What is the function of leptin in puberty?

A

Protein hormone from adipose tissue.

Primary target hypothalamus.

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21
Q

What are Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

A

Sensorimotor (birth- 2 years): first stage of child development, involves senses and motor skills to explore the world.
Preoperational (2-7 years): represent the world using symbols, gestures and objects, logical reasoning not fully developed.
Concrete operational (7-11 years): logical reasoning and think operationally.
Formal-operational (11 years +): able to think in an abstract, hypothetical and idealistic manner.

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22
Q

What is Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A

At birth, all humans have no moral or ethical stance. 6 developmental stages.

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23
Q

What are the 6 stages in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A

Level 1 (pre-conventional):

1) Obedience and punishment orientation (how can I avoid punishment?)
2) Self-interest orientation (what’s in it for me? paying for a benefit)

Level 2 (conventional):

3) Interpersonal accord and conformity (social norms, the good boy/ good girl attitude)
4) Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (law and order morality)

Level 3 (post-conventional):

5) Social contract orientation
6) Universal ethical principles (principled conscience)

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24
Q

What are Erikson’s developmental stages?

A

Trust vs. mistrust (infancy- 1st year).
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (infancy- 1 to 3 years).
Initiative vs. guilt (early childhood- 3 to 5 years).
Industry vs. inferiority (middle and late childhood).
Identity vs. confusion (adolescence- 10 to 20 years).
Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood- 20s, 30s).
Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood- 40s, 50s).
Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood- 60s onward).

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25
Q

What are the stages of friendship according to Bigelow and LaGalpa (1975)?

A

Reward-cost, age 7-8: geographical proximity, availability of interesting toys, cooperative playing.

Normative stage, age 10-11: common values and beliefs, loyalty, sharing, support and cooperation.

Empathic stage, age 10-12: share common interests, make active attempts to understand one another, share personal information, respond sensitively.

26
Q

What type of friendship do different age groups experience?

A 
3 onwards: seek out same sex.
3-4 years: attachments increase, make-believe play more complex, role-taking to mimic adults.
School aged: task orientated.
6-8 years: group formation more evident.
10-14 years: more formal groups.
27
Q

What are the Shaffer (1989) characteristics of group formation and peer relationships?

A

Interact on a regular basis.
Sense of belonging.
Share implicit or explicit norms in relation to behaviours.
Develop structure or social organisation that enables the group to work together for a shared goal.

28
Q

What are the positive consequences of social media?

A

Increased connection
Relationship development
Obtaining information
Increased wellbeing?

29
Q

What are the negative consequences of social media?

A 
Cyberbullying
Inappropriate content
Unhealthy contacts (self-harm/pro-ana)
Decreased wellbeing?
Security
30
Q

What causes growth?

A

Gonadal steroids (particularly androgens) work in conjunction with other hormones, particularly somatotrophin (growth hormone) from the adenohypophysis.

31
Q

What are the 2 theories for how the onset of puberty occurs?

A

Maturation of the CNS affecting GnRH neurones (increased pulsatile release).
Altered set point to gonadal steroid negative feedback.

32
Q

What might trigger the maturation of the CNS?

A

Unclear.
Secular trend towards earlier puberty suggests environmental factors: improved health care and improved socioeconomic factors (photoperiod? nutrition?)

33
Q

What is the relatively constant approximate body weight at which menarche occurs?

A

47kg.

34
Q

What are the psychological implications of pubertal development?

A

For boys: the changes of puberty, e.g. increased height and musculature, are welcomed and are associated with increased status and athletic prowess.

For girls: the changes of puberty, e.g. increased adiposity, may be associated with ambivalent feelings in view of the negative attitudes to plumpness, and ambivalent feelings about onset menarche.

Cultural variation: white English girls are more negative about body shape and weight than Afro-Caribbean girls- negative attitudes increase as weight and BMI increase.

35
Q

What are the implications of body shape dissatisfaction?

A

Increases the urge to reduce weight.
May be brought about by dieting or other weight controlling methods.
Reduced weight may induce dysphoria and repeated attempts to control weight.
Significantly increases the risk of an eating disorder e.g. anorexia nervosa.

36
Q

What are the cardinal features of anorexia nervosa?

A

Body weight maintained 15% below expected weight, or BMI < 17.5.
Weight loss is self-induced.
Psychopathology- dread of fatness, and preoccupation with this.
Endocrine disturbance: amenorrhoea, or delayed growth and puberty in younger sufferers.

37
Q

What is the epidemiology of anorexia nervosa?

A

Approximately 0.5-1% adolescent females.

Approximately 10% of cases or fewer are male.

38
Q

What are the causes of anorexia nervosa?

A 
Genetic predisposition.
Perfectionist temperament.
Specific subcultures.
Childhood abuse and adversities.
Perhaps higher social class.
39
Q

What is the usual outcome of anorexia nervosa?

A

Community sample: 50% recover after 5 years.

Clinic samples: after 1 year, 37% recover, 25% weight gain but not menstruating, 37% underweight with symptoms.

40
Q

What is the treatment for anorexia nervosa?

A

Family intervention.
For abnormal eating attitudes and depression: cognitive behavioural therapy.
Small percentage need admission for weight restoration- nasogastric tube feeding.

41
Q

What is depression?

A

May refer to a single symptom, a symptom cluster or a disorder.

42
Q

What is depression as a symptom cluster?

A

Affective- sadness, loss of enjoyment, irritability.
Cognitive- self-blame, hopelessness, guilt.
Biological- disturbed sleep, reduced appetite.
May reach threshold for disorder.

43
Q

What are the developmental considerations to be made regarding depression?

A

Endocrine change- especially female may increase risk low mood.
Changes in family relationships- physical closeness, joint activities, family conflict.
Peers- increased involvement with peers, peer rejection and conflict.
Responsibilities and hassles: life events, exams, etc.

44
Q

What percentage of adolescents have depressive disorder?

A

2-5%.

45
Q

What are the causes of depressive disorder?

A

Familial aggregation- genetic factors known.
Effects of family interaction, e.g. criticism.
Life events, adversities.

46
Q

What is the prognosis of depressive disorder?

A

Duration of major depression in specialist CAMHS settings is 6-9 months, in primary care is 2-3 months.
High risk of recurrence.
Prepubertal onset has a better prognosis.
Small number in adolescence- bipolar.

47
Q

What are the possible interventions for depressive disorder?

A

Cognitive behavioural therapy.
Interpersonal psychotherapy.
Family intervention for associated family problems.
Antidepressants- SSRIs like fluoxetine for moderate to severe depression.

48
Q

What is conduct disorder?

A

Persistent failure to control behaviour appropriately within socially defined rules.

49
Q

What are the clinical features of conduct disorder in children?

A 
Loses temper and argues.
Defies adult requests or rules.
Bullies, fights or intimidates.
Stealing, breaking into cars or houses, destroying property
Running away, truanting.
50
Q

What are the developmental consideration to be made regarding conduct disorder?

A

Changes in family relationships- less direct surveillance, physical closeness, joint activities.
Peers- increased involvement with peers, may amplify antisocial behaviour.
Experimentation and risk taking- rule violation, drugs and alcohol, petty offending frequent.

51
Q

What is the epidemiology of conduct disorder?

A 
4% at age 5-10 years.
6% at age 10-15 years.
Overall 5% at age 5-15 years.
Higher in deprived inner-city areas.
Boys:girls 3:1.
Age of onset may vary.
Associated with larger family size and lower socioeconomic status.
52
Q

What are the causes of conduct disorder?

A

Genetic- weak.
Child- difficult temperament.
Family- poor parenting, discord, lack warmth, inconsistent discipline, coercive interaction, aggression.
Wider environment- poor schools, neighbourhoods.

53
Q

What are the outcomes of conduct disorder?

A

Poorer outcome with more problems in child, and family.
Risk of antisocial personality disorder in males.
Range of emotional and personality disorders in females.

54
Q

What interventions are there for conduct disorder?

A

For child- problem solving skills.
Parent training.
Family intervention.
Address problems across contexts, e.g. in school.

55
Q

What are the psychological risk factors for anorexia nervosa?

A

Low self-esteem.
Depression/anxiety.
Perfectionism.
Temperament.

56
Q

What are the social risk factors for anorexia nervosa?

A

Cultural variations.
Media.
Certain professions, e.g. modelling.
Higher social class.

57
Q

What are the biological risk factors for anorexia nervosa?

A

Genetic predisposition.

Hormonal changes.

58
Q

What are the external risk factors for anorexia nervosa?

A

Dieting.
Life events.
Childhood abuse.

59
Q

Give some signs/symptoms of anorexia nervosa.

A

Restricted dietary choice.
Excessive exercise.
Induced vomiting and purgation.
Use of appetite suppressants and diuretics.

60
Q

How does depression as a single symptom or symptom cluster become depressive disorder?

A

Symptoms must persist for at least 2 weeks.
Core symptoms present for most of the day for majority of days.
Some say only if results in social incapacity.
Irritability is common, even in absence of low mood.

Reproduction, development and ageing (9 decks)

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