Additional Methods, Features of Science & Scientific Reports

Question 1

What is content analysis?

Answer 1

a technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories - converting qualitative data into quantitative data, involved the indirect study of people via communications e.g. text messages

Question 2

What are coding units?

Answer 2

categorising data into useful/meaningful units as some data sets can be extremely large, can involve words, themes, characters, roles, time, space

Question 3

What are the strengths of using content analysis?

Answer 3

• allows researchers to circumvent many of the ethical issues that would have been encountered in other research methods as much of the content is already in the public domain - no problems with consent
• research often high in external validity as there is nothing artificial about the data

Question 4

What are the limitations of using content analysis?

Answer 4

• the possibility of bias as the interpretation is subjective, and data may be analysed out of the context in which it was produced
• cultural bias may be a problem as interpretation of meaning of different verbal or written content. may be affected by the language/culture of the observer, and the coding units they have chosen to use
• choice of material and content to be analysed includes potential for bias

Question 5

How do we deal with the issue of subjectivity in content analysis?

Answer 5

to have a number of researchers who work independently, and compare their results (a form of inter-rater reliability) - to increase reliability, researchers should be trained before hand in how to use the coding units

Question 6

What is thematic analysis?

Answer 6

a method for analysing qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and recording patterns within the data - purpose is to identify patterns of meaning or repeated themes across a dataset that provide an answer to the research that is being addressed, themes are identified through a rigorous process of familiarisation, data coding and theme development and revision

Question 7

What are the 6 stages to approaching thematic analysis?

Answer 7

1. familiarisation with the data
2. coding
3. searching for themes
4. reviewing themes - check candidate themes against the dataset, to determine if they tell a convincing story of the data
5. defining and naming themes
6. writing up

Question 8

What are the strengths of using thematic analysis?

Answer 8

• richness in detail from this form of analysis, retains the descriptive nature of the material
• it is flexible and can be used to answer different types of research question

Question 9

What are the limitations of using thematic analysis?

Answer 9

• risk of subjectivity, hence, researcher bias

- very lengthy

Question 10

What are case studies?

Answer 10

an in-depth investigation of an individual, group or event, where data is gathered from a range of sources using different methods (e.g. observations & interviews) longitudinal and may involve talking to family/friends

Question 11

What are the strengths of using case studies?

Answer 11

• give a detailed picture of an individual that helps to uncover what type of person they are related to present and past behaviour
• by studying unusual cases we learn more about normally functioning people
• they provide a variety of in-depth and detailed information that may not be possible to gather from experiments
• often provide the only method for studying a particular condition/event e.g HM

Question 12

What are the limitations of using case studies?

Answer 12

• may rely on memory which may be inaccurate/distorted (retrospective studies), also past records may be incomplete
• can only tell you about one person/group so findings can not be generalised
• interviewer may be biased or interviewee may not be honest
• objectivity from researchers can be difficult and data may be very subjective
• issue of confidentiality

Question 13

What are the goals of a science?

Answer 13

• prediction
• understanding
• control

Question 14

What is objectivity?

Answer 14

idea it doesn’t matter who makes a measurement/observation, they will record the same thing

Question 15

How do we reduce the possibility of unconscious bias?

Answer 15

• standardised instructions
• operational definitions of variables
• techniques e.g. double-blind

Question 16

Why is there a lack of objectivity?

Answer 16

• experimenter bias

- subject matter means it is not possible

Question 17

Where is there evidence of objectivity?

Answer 17

• brain scans

- experiments e.g. Skinner’s pigeons, behaviours such as pecking a disk objectively measured

Question 18

What is the empirical method?

Answer 18

the belief that only the source of true knowledge is through our senses and in some psychological cases, in some studies, cannot always be directly observed
- consists of observation and measurement

Question 19

What is evidence against objectivity?

Answer 19

• reliant on self-report methods and qualitative data (require interpretation) e.g. Bowlby’s 44 Thieves

Question 20

What is a problem with the empirical method?

Answer 20

• thoughts and feelings are not directly observable - physics also have issues like this and use inference - in psychology, can infer through influences on the behaviour of people

Question 21

What us replicability?

Answer 21

the extent to which a piece of research can be repeated under the same conditions as the original research

Question 22

Where is there evidence of replicability?

Answer 22

Asch’s study repeated by many with similar results e.g. Crutchfield

Question 23

What is a problem with replicability?

Answer 23

natural experiments cannot be repeated and checked for reliability e.g. Romanian Orphan Studies due to ethical issues or purely the nature if the study

Question 24

What is falsifiability?

Answer 24

Popper’s principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue

Question 25

What is evidence for falsifiability?

Answer 25

• theories in some approaches make clear, testable predictions e.g. WMM makes clear predictions about dual task method

Question 26

What is evidence against falsifiability?

Answer 26

• theories in the psychodynamic approach cannot be tested because the concepts are vague and often use unconscious claims e.g. about the id

Question 27

What is a paradigm?

Answer 27

a shared set of assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

Question 28

What is a paradigm shift?

Answer 28

the result of a scientific revolution: a scientific change in the dominant, unifying theory within a scientific discipline

Question 29

What is an example of a paradigm?

Answer 29

different approaches could be seen as different, legitimate paradigms

Question 30

Give an example of a paradigm shift

Answer 30

behaviourism to cognitive approach

Question 31

What is a problem with the concept of paradigms?

Answer 31

Kuhn: no single paradigm has been settled in psychology, and huge disagreements remain e.g. whether the conscious mind can and should be studied

Question 32

How does theory construction work?

Answer 32

• gathering evidence through direct observation

- coming up with the theory

Question 33

What is a theory?

Answer 33

a set of general laws or principles that Jas the ability to explain particular events or behaviours

Question 34

How does hypothesis testing work?

Answer 34

• once the observation has occurred (empirically) and the theory has been decided, researcher needs to come up with the hypothesis, then test the hypothesis with the study and then accept/reject/or amend the theory

Question 35

What are reasons that psychology should be considered a science?

Answer 35

• understanding/knowledge at a theoretical level, helping us understand how and why people behave the way that they do
• enables objective/empirical support
• allows for progress within discipline
• allows for practical application
• allows prediction and control of behaviour
• allows for replication and increase in confidence in validity of theories

Question 36

What are the reasons that psychology should not be considered a science?

Answer 36

• problem with control of variables
• demand characteristics
• artificiality of environments means results may not be generalisable
• unobservable private experience and even if it is observed, may be subjective interpretation
• ethical issues including dehumanisation

Question 37

What are the sections of a scientific report?

Answer 37

• abstract
• introduction
• method
• results
• discussion
• referencing

Question 38

What does an abstract include?

Answer 38

short summary 150-200 words including main elements: aims, hypothesis, method/procedure, results and conclusions
- when researching a particular topic, psychologists read lots of abstracts to identify those investigations that are worthy of further examination

Question 39

What does the introduction include?

Answer 39

literature review including: theories, concepts and studies that are related to the current study
- more specific aims and hypotheses presented

Question 40

What is in the method section?

Answer 40

(so that other researchers can easily replicate the study if they wish)

• design
• sample
• apparatus/materials
• procedure (including briefing, standardised instructions and debriefing)
• ethics

Question 41

What is in the results section?

Answer 41

• descriptive statistics e.g. tables, graphs, charts, measures of central tendency/dispersion
• inferential statistics
• if researcher has used any qualitative methods

Question 42

What is the discussion section?

Answer 42

• summarise findings in verbal form in context of evidence from the introduction
• discuss limitations of research
• wider implications of the research

Question 43

What goes in the referencing of a report?

Answer 43

• full details of source material