Addicitve behaviours Flashcards
Describe the characteristics of Addictive Behaviours
- Salience, The activity that has become the most important thing in an individuals life. It dominates their thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Even when they are not engaged in the behaviour it will pre occupy them.
- Mood modification. When the individual engages in the addictive behaviour they expereince a change in their mood. This may be a ‘high’ or a ‘buzz; or perhaps a feeling of escape or numbness. It may even be that this changes at differnt times. Eg, a smoker may use nicotine for a boost at first then relaxation in the evening.
- Tolerence, as time goes on, the individual will need more of the drug or behviour to achieve the same amount effects as they have built a tolerance to it. This is usually associated with chemical addictions such as heroin or alcohol.
- Withdrawel Symptoms, if the behaviour is stopped an individual may begin to expereince withdrawel symptoms. These can be physical or psychological.
- Conflict, addicts will often expereince conflicts between themselves and friends or family by compromising their jobs or relationships at the expense of engaging in the behaviour.
- Relapse, addicts will have a strong tendancy to return to the addictive behaviour even after years of not engaging in it or after a seeming successful treatment.
What is the biological explanation of ‘ The role of Dopamine in Addiction?’
- The masolimic Pathway, it is suggested that addictive behaviours and substances trigger the release of dopamine in the Ventral tegmental area of the Brain. Which leads to a sense of pleasure in the nucleus accumbent. This reward pathway has evolved in humans to be the usual adaptive response to behaviours that are good for us. In the case of addiction, the system is responding to harmful action+ Maladaptive. Research shows that addictive substances and behaviours trigger the release of dopamine in this reward pathway.
- Tolerence and withdrawals, Overtime, tolerance to the effects of the drug or addictive behaviour is experiences as the dopamine receptors become less sensitive to the effects. Research has shown a decrease in D2 recptors and a decrease in dopamine release. So, the addict will need to engage more in the addictive behaviour to experience the same sensations os stopping causes withdrawals. So , engaging in the behaviour becomes more about avoiding the withdrawal symptoms than experiencing the initial pleasure.
- Maintaining addiction; the role of the frontal cortext. More complex processes are involved in maintaining addiction and causing relapse. Nora Volkow has been instrumental in researching the brains changes involved in addiction. She suggests that although the dopamine reward pathway is the starting point for addiction to develop, it is the changes in the frontal core text that turn engaging behaviours into an addiction. The frontal cortext is linked to higher cognitive functions like decision making and memory. Addictive behaviours can change the brains circuits that usually decide what to pay attention to. Salience to the behaviour and the cues associated with it. Therefore, the dopamine system is playing the role of making the individual want to engage in the behaviour, which explains why many addicts report that they no longer enjoy but cannot overcome the cravings. Research evidence has shown cocaine addicts have abnormalities in their frontal cortext. (Volkow et al,1992)
Evaluate Dopamine as a biological explanation for behaviour in Addiction.
-Not all addictive behaviours increase dopamine levels: Although there is evidence showing levels of dopamine following the consumption of some drugs, it is not the case for all addictive behaviours. eg, Paul Stokes et al (2009) found no significant increase in dopamine levels in volunteers taking cannabis. Therefore, it may not be appropriate to say that dopamine receptors explain all addictions.
- The complexity of the role of dopamine: The dopamine explanation is too simplistic. Explaining addiction as simply due to the effects of dopamine ignores the fact that dopamine has a range of other functions as well. Vaugh Bell (2013) ‘Kim K of neurotransmitters’, implying it has become fashionable to blame dopamine for causing a range of problems,.
-Methodological issues: David Nutt et al (2015) critisisied the methodology used by research in this area. As the samples are small and participants are given substances to measure its effect in a different form. In a lab, not usual environment, meaning measured effects may7 not be accurate.
- Use of non human animal studies: A number of the studies into the role of dopamine and the frontal cortext involve the use of non-human animals. Although this allows researchers to study the effects of drugs in ways that are not possible with humans. The studies may not give a true insight into how humans become addicted. It. issues the social context in which many addictions take place. Also cannot replicate some behavioural addictions like gambling and video games. Results may not be generalisable to humans or to all types of addiction.
Apply the biological explanation of ‘Dopamine’ to a method of modifying behaviour, using Varenicline
If dopamine is linked to the pleasure an individual feels as a result of the dopamine being released, then reducing this release could help to diminish cravings for the addictive behaviour. Vareicline is a drug prescribed to help those who are trying to quit smoking. It works by affecting dopamine made in the brain. By binding to nicotine receptors, alleviating cravings and withdrawal symptoms. It reduces the rewarding effects of nicotine by blocking the ability of nicotine to access the receptors and active dopamine release. Therefore, if someone is smoking a cigarette they will get less pleasure from it. Helping with quitting.
What is the biological explanation of ‘ Genetic Factors in Addiction?’
- Genes associated with addiction; DRD2, many studies have indicated a role for the D2 dopamine receptor gene. Individuals with the A1 variant of this gene have fewer dopamine receptors in area of the brain that provides us with a sense of pleasure in response to normally adaptive behaviours. The lower the number of dopamine receptors in these individuals mean that they try and concentrate for this overstimulation through engaging in addictive behaviour.l Eg, Daniel Comings et al (1196a,b) found that 48.7% of smokers and ex-smokers carried the A1 variant of the D2D2 gene compared with 25.9% of the general population.
ADH genes and ALDH genes are responsible for how alcohol is metabolised by the body. Normally, the body metabolises alcohol into acetledyhyde due to enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenate. The another enzyme (ADH) breaks it down into acetic acid and water. Some variants of ALDH and ADH genes that decrease the risk of alcoholism by increasing acetaledyde levels., This causes an unpleasant reaction in the body, such as facial flushing and nausea. East Asian Populations. This means there will be lower rates of alcoholism as it is unpleasant, so less likely to be addicted. Variations of the ADH have therefore been linked to an increased risk of alcoholism. Slower rate means youdf drink more. - The diathesis-stress model: It is too simplistic to suggest that addiction could be caused by just biological factors such as genetics. Therefore, it is important to consider how genetic factors may interact with the environment. The diathesis stress model suggests that a disorder is triggered by an enviromental factor. Eg, Serotonin Transporter gene (5HTT) has been linked to the development of alcoholism, but not on its own. It appears to interact with environment; factors such as maltreatment in childhood.
Evaluate Genetic factors as a biological explanation for behaviour in Addiction.
- The difference between initiation and maintenance: Twin studied demonstrate the influence of genetic factors in addiction. Kenneth Kendier and Carol Prescott (1998) interviewed 2000 win studies and found that, although environmental and social factors would influence whether a person would initiate cocain use, whether the person became addicted was dependent on genetic factors. Eg, the concordance rates for cocaine initiation in MZ twins is 54%. For DZ twins it’s 42%. However, when looking at concordance rates for the dependance on cocaine, there was a substantial difference between MZ and DZ twins. Suggesting a much greater rate for genetic factors in addiction rather than the decision to use it.
- A ‘gene for addiction?: The relationship between genetics and addiction is more complex than it may first appear. As well as the DRD2 and ADH genes, a number of others have been identified. Eg, Shamisdeen Ojelade et al (2015) found that when a gene called Rsu1 was not functioning correctly in fruit flys it would lower their sensitivity to alcohol. Brain imaging used to test for this in humans, they found a relationship between this and alcohol dependance. There are a range of different genes identified, meaning we cannot simply say there is a ‘gene’ for addiction.
- Determinism
A key strength of biological explanations such as genetic factors is that they explain why only some people are more likely to go on to become addicted even though many people try behaviours such as smoking and gambling.
Genetic explanations can also be criticised for ignoring the role played by other factors.
What is the individual differences explanation of ‘Personality’ in Addiction?’
Eyesencks theory of Personality. Hans Eysnecks theory suggesting that there are 3 dimensions related to personality. Upon which personality can be measured. Extraversion/Introversion. Neuroticism/Stability. Individuals high in N have high levels of anxiety and Psychotism, those high on P re more impulsive, impatient aggressive and creative.
- Linking these to addiction. Eysenck (199) suggested a resource model of addiction, whereby the addiction develops because it fulfils a need relating to the individuals personality profile. Eyesneck highlighted an important role for dimensions of psychotics and neuroticism,. Research studies have tested the personality of addicts and looked for common patterns in their scores on the EPQ. These compare addicts with a control group on the 3 dimensions. Also compare the 2 groups on the lie score. Eg, Micheal Gossop and Hans Eysenck (1980) researched over 200 drug addicts and found that addicts had high P and N scores but low E and L scores than the control group.
- Psychotism and impulsivity.One trait associated with those high in psychotism is impulsivity. Often addicts act impulsively without thinking through the consequences eg, they feel as if smoking won’t affect them now, so it will do them no harm to indulge. A review of studies found that impulsiveness was both a cause and effect of drug abuse. Other research has found that impulse rats increase cocaine intakes more than low impulsivity rats.
- Neuroticism and self-medication. It may be that neurotic individuals are using the addiction as a means of self medication to deal with the stress and worry they are experiencing. Rajita Sinta (2001) reviewed a research into this and highlighted the role that stress plays in the initiation of an addiction, but also in the risk of relapse when an individual is trying to abstain. If an individual is more susceptible to stress they may feel they need the addictive behaviour to overcome it.
Evaluate Personality as an Individual Differences explanation for behaviour in Addiction.
-Difficulty establishing cause and effect.
Key issue with research inti the relationships between addiction and personality is that it is mainly correlational. Personality tests are usually given once the individual has already developed the addiction therefore cause and effect can not be established. Addiction has made the individual more stressed or moe impel;sive or not the other way round. However, Dong et al (2013) carried out a study on Chinese Uni students. They were given the EPQ just after entering uni, and 2 years later their addiction on the internet was assessed. Researchers found that higher N and P scores were linked to addiction.
-Role of personality depends on the addictive behaviour. Ruth McNamara et al (2010) found that in rats, impulsivity meant that the animals were more likely to self- administer cocaine but not heroin. Paul Rosin and Caryn Stroess (1993) looked at individuals tendency to become addicted to a range of different activities and could not find a common pattern. Therefore, the type of personality involved might depend on the specific addictive behaviour being investigated.
-The myth of addictive personalities. There are numerous traits that have been linked to addiction, and this makes it very difficult to reach a definite conclusion about what is meant by an addictive personality. In addition many of the traits are not unique to addiction. eg, Eyesneck also found high N and P scores in criminals. John Kerr refers to the idea of an addictive personality as one of the ‘myths of addiciton’. So many traits listed that they would be typical to most at some degree.
What is the Individual explanation of ‘Cognitive Biases’ in Addiction?’
Daniel Kahneman and Ames Tversky, proposed humans have a particular way of decision making called heuristics. Which are mental shortcuts used to solve a problem quickly.
- Applying these to gambling; 2 of the heuristics identified by Kahenman and Tvesky are; Represetaivness and Avalibality. These can explain why some people gamble. If a particular heuristic is selected on the wrong occasion this can cause problems. Contributing to a gambling addiction.
- Representativeness. This is the belief that random events have a pattern, and in particular that a series of events drawn from a small sample should represent what would be found in a larger sample. Eg, if people are asked to create a random sequence of 20 coin tosses they will suggest that the ratio should be 50/50 of heads to tails, but in reality it may take many more throws to reach this pattern. Gamblers fallacy is the beielf that if something happens more frequency than normal it will happen less frequently in the future, eg, Monte Carlo 1913. 1 Roulette showed a run of black for 26 times. Gamblers believe that a red was due and there was a rush to bet on red. Leading to money being lost. Gamblers may adapt this king of thinking pattern and believe that they are ‘;due;’ a win or predict the outcome of the next bet.
-Avaliability. This heuristic works on the principle that an event is seen as more likely if it is easier to recall from memory. The way people make decisions is often based on how often they hear about something and how available information is rather than the actual probability. Eg, over estimate the frequency of death if they have experienced it in close relatives. In the case of gambling it might encourage people to engage and continue in the behaviour in the mistaken belief that they are likely to win. eg, media reports on big wins by lottery winners. Make it seem events are more likely to happen than they are. Which may be why casinos and slot machines are close to each other.
Evaluate Cognitive Biases as an individual explanation for behaviour in Addiction.
- Supporting evidence. Mark Griffiths (1994) compared the verbalisations of 30 regular gamblers with 30 non-regular gamblers while they were plying on a fruit machine. He found that the regular gamblers showed many more irrational verbalisations than the non-regular gamblers (14% compared to 2.5%). In addition the verbalisations showed evidence of many of the heuristics and biases. Showing a clear difference in the cognitions of problem gamblers and other gamblers, suggesting that cognitive biases could be a useful explanation for the addiction. However, it is not an experiment so no cause or effect can be established.
- Issues with research. Research into cognitive biases requires participants to report to researchers whilst they are thinking, this creates a range of problems.eg, in research like that carried out by Griffiths (1994), researchers have to decide what bias is being shown, which may be susceptible to researcher bias. Questionnaires rely on the gambler being honest about what they are thinking, which could be subject to issues such as demand characteristics and social desirability. If a gambler is aware that they are thinking is irrational they may be reluctant to admit it. As well as this it ignores individual differences. Gamblig+Males. =Bingo +Females
- Description or explanation, one issue with cognitive biases as an explanation of gambling is that they may merely provide a description of the thoughts of gamblers rather than a true explanation. Explanations of behaviour should be able to predict what will happen in certain circumstances, and one of the features of cognitive biases is that it is impossible to predict when a particular bias might be used.’Grittiths (2013); triple rollover in lottery. This illustrates that using cognitive biases as an explanation does not allow predictions about behaviour to be accurately made.
What is the Social Psychological explanation of ‘Peer Influences’ in Addiction?’
- Social learning theory (SLT). Albert Bandar (1977,1986) outlined social learning theory. Which emphasises the role that social factors cn have on behaviour. He extended the behaviourist approach to include indirect as well as direct reinforcement. The theory is called ‘social’ learning because you learn indirectly from the behaviour of other people. In order for learning to take place, observer needs to be motivated by 2 key processes. 1. Observing a role model and Vicarious reinforcement. These can be applied to addictive behaviours; an individual may see their peers smoking (role models). These peers may be rewarded through having a higher social status= engage.
- Perceived social norms. Social norms are an individuals perception of how much others engage in behaviours such as drinking and smoking. Injunctive norms are what an individual perceives as other approval of the behaviour. In the application to addictive behaviours, such as alcohol consumption it is suggested that students over estimate the descriptive and injunction norms with their peer group. They believe that their peers are drinking more alcohol, than they are and also that it is more socially acceptable. Keizer’s et al (2020) looked at 359 emerging adults and the effects of peer pressure on substance use. They found the negative peer group were more likely to engage in lifetime drinking than the non peer group.
Evaluate ‘Peer Influences’ as a social psychological explanation for addictive behaviours.
-Research Evidence. Bruce Simons-morton and Tilada Earhart ( 2010( reviewed 40 prospective studies into the relationship between peers and smoking and found that all but one showed a positive correlation between the 2. This research supports the link between the behaviour of peers and engagement in addictive behaviour.
- Peer influence or peer selection. A key problem with research into peer influences on addictive behaviour is whether the peers influence the individual to engage int heir addictive behaviour (peer influence) or whether individuals choose friends because they also engage in the behaviour. (peer selection). It is likely they intersect. Ennett and Bowman (1994) found that pp who were non-smokers at the start of the study who had smoking friends were more likely to smoke at the follow up. Also evidence of selection. so both peer influence and selection are important processes.
-The role of other psychological facts. Mat may be too simplistic to say that peers are the only social factor that influence the development of addictive behaviour. Kimberly Kobe’s (2003) suggests we need to consider larger social contexts like family and neighbourhood. In addition, the exact mechanisms involved are unclear. Social learning theory and perceived social norms are just 2 explanations; may be other processes. eg, conformity and social identity.
What is the Social Psychological Explanataion of ‘the role of the media’ in addiction?
- Social learning theory. This is the same principles as peers. But film celebs. These act as the role model. The vicarious reinforcement would, eg, be the portrayal of the character as popular or glameruous in the film.
- How the media portrays addiction. Exposure to addictive behaviours in the media. A number of studies have showed that the potraytol of potentially addictive behaviours, partially smoking and alcohol use, is very common in films and TV. Eg, alcohol use was seen in 86% of popular UK films and 40% of TV programmes. Vicarious reinforcement. Not only are these behaviours seen frequently, but also the behaviours are often presented in a positive light. Hasantha Gunasekra et al (2005) analysed 87 of the top 200 movies of the last 20 years using a content analysis method. Tobacco and alcohol use were moe common and the researchers also noted incidences of cannabis and other drug use. The main finding is that positive potrayal= no negative consequences therefore vicarious reinforcement.
- Whether the exposure has effect: Robert Hellman et al (2006) reviewed a number of studies looking at how exposure to tobacco advertising and use of cigarettes influenced children’s attitudes to smoking and their smoking habits,. The researchers found that, across a variety of studies, that exposure to marketing and media promoting smoking increased positive attitudes and even doubted the chances of starting to smoke.
Evaluate the role of the media as a social psychological explanation for addictive behaviours.
-Difficulty establishing a casual link. The majority of the research into the media and addiction is correlational, and therefore cause and effect cannot be established,. It might not be the ‘media’ causing the addiction; eg, may be friends or family. However, Cornelia Pechman et al (1999) used an experimental method to assess the effect of smoking potrayol on attitudes to smoking. 2 v. Same film. 1 smoking, 1 none. Smoking v reported more positive attitudes and increased personal intentions to smoke. The use of this expermental method provides support for a casual relationship between the media and smoking.
- Lack of population validity. Matt lack population validity as much of it is conducted with adolescents. As they are more susceptible to social influences and effects. It is more easily detected. May be difficult in adults. Jamieson and Romeo (2015) suggest similar results are seen. Looked at trends in tobacco on TV and compared to smoking they found a clear correlation between tobacco use on TV and adult cigarette consumption.
- The media can have positive effects as well. Research so far has focused on an increase in addiction. It is important to note that the media can also have positive effects. May reduce addictive behaviours. Eg, Pechmann and Shah study, any effects of showing smoking in the film were cancelled out by showing an anti-smoking ad before. Also, many aspects of media report on the negative consequences. Many films show negative effects= Vicarious punishment, discouraging behaviours.
What is the method of modifying behaviour ‘Agonist and Antagonist Substitution’ for addictive behaviours?
- Agonist substitution: Methadone. An against is a chemical that binds to a post synaptic receptor and activates that receptor to produce a response. Agonsits are designed to imitate the action of another substance such as heroin.
Methadone is used as part of a maintenance treatment. The aim is that by giving heroin users methadone as a substitute, it will reduce cravings and prevent withdrawal symptoms. It has some of the same effects as heropin. Not the same ‘high’ should be reduced over time. (Detoxification) until the individual stops using it completely ( abstinence).
Dosage: Initial dosage of 10-4mg a day. Increased by up to 10mg a day. Until no signs of withdrawal. Maintenance dose of 60-120mg a day. - Antagonist substitution; An antagonist substitution binds to a receptor. But rather than causing a reaction, it blocks the usual function of a particular substance. Eg, naltrexone. Primarily used in the abstinence stage of recovery from addiction. It blocks euphoric and pleasurable effects associated with opioids and makes them less rewarding.
Naltrexone should be used by people who have stopped using opioids and have demonstrated they are highly motivated to stay free from drugs. Orally given. It may also be given in cases of alcohol addiction. Recommended to be taken alongside a psychological intervention and after withdrawal has occurred. It can be used for up to a 6 month period/
