AD1 - Management in Procurement & Supply Flashcards
1
Q
What are the three systems which contribute most to an understanding of organisational behaviour?
A
- Personality systems
- Social systems
- Cultural systems
2
Q
What are personality systems?
A
psychologists focus on the individual and their personality traits including perceptions, attitudes and motivates and the impact these have on an individual’s behaviour.
3
Q
What are social systems?
A
Sociologists focus on social behaviour and the impacts relationships have on behaviour, for example between leaders and followers.
4
Q
What are cultural systems?
A
Anthropologists focus on the study of human behaviour as a whole and in an organisational behaviour terms will include the impact on behaviour of culture, values and beliefs and so on.
5
Q
What are Morgans 8 metaphors for categorising social systems in an organisation?
A
- Machine
- Organism
- Brain
- Culture
- Political systems
- Psychic prison
- Flux and transformation
- Instrument of domination
6
Q
What is a psychological contract?
A
It is the expectations of the company on an individual and vice versa
Explicit Expectations Upon Employee: Deliver work
Implied Expectations Upon Employee: The work will be delivered in the right way
Explicit Expectations Upon Organisation: Pay and Conditions
Implied Expectations Upon Organisation: Other rewards
7
Q
What implied expectations might an organisation have about how an individual delivers work?
A
Commitment Diligence Responsiveness Confidentiality Flexibility Adherence to rules and regulations Team working Loyalty Respect for authority
8
Q
What implied expectations might an individual have about how they are treated by an organisation?
A
Job satisfaction Respect Fairness Understanding Security of employment Work /life balance Safety Promotion Flexible working Personal development Recognition
9
Q
Professor Gary Johnsons Culture Web shows the elements that make up an organisations culture. What are the 7 elements which make it up?
A
- The paradigm
- Symbols
- Power structures
- Organisational structures
- Control Systems
- Rituals and routines
- Stories and myths
10
Q
What is meant by the paradigm of an organisation?
A
the core of its cultures, values, beliefs and assumptions.
11
Q
What is meant by the symbols of an organisation?
A
for instance dress codes, signs of status and position, use of jargon
12
Q
What is meant by the power structures of an organisation?
A
how power is gained, for instance, through expertise, position, profession or individual forcefulness
13
Q
What is meant by the organisational structure of an organisation?
A
A cautious organisation will have a tall, role-based culture. An innovative culture will be flatter and define roles more loosely
14
Q
What is meant by the control structures of an organisation?
A
How the organisation manages performance through rewards and punishments. Also refers to the balance between quality and financial performance.
15
Q
What is meant by ritual routines of an organisation?
A
The way things are done in the organisation, e.g. who buys the round of milk
16
Q
What is meant by stories and myths of an organisation?
A
Stories about heroes, villains, mavericks, successes and disasters.
17
Q
What influences from the external environment affect an organisation?
A
S - Social T - Technological E - Environment E - Economic P - Political L - Legal E - Ethical
18
Q
What characteristics are there of an organisation?
A
Organisational structure Purpose and organisation of work Division of labour Working patterns Control mechanisms Organisational values Knowledge management Motivation and power Response to change and uncertainty Conflict Management
19
Q
What are the 5 main approaches of management and organisational behaviour?
A
- Classical (Emerging 1920s/30s)
- Human Relations (1940s)
- Systems (1950s)
- Contingency (1960s)
- Postmodern (1990s)
20
Q
What characteristics are there of a classical organisational behaviour?
A
Organisational structure Work Organisation Technical efficiency Productivity Rational and logical behaviour
21
Q
What 3 approaches are there of applying a classical organisational structure?
A
- Frederick Taylors scientific management or “Taylorism”
- Max Webers work on bureaucracy
- Henri Fayols 14 principles
22
Q
What elements make up a Taylorism approach to adopting a classical organisational structure?
A
- Developing procedures to undertake tasks
- Selecting, training and developing workers to undertake tasks
- Co-operation with the workers to ensure work is done using agreed procedures
- Division of responsibility between management and workers
23
Q
What characteristics make up a bureaucratic approach to adopting a classical organisational structure?
A
- Hierarchy of authority
- Division of labour and specialisation
- Rules and regulations - standard operating procedures provide certainty through uniformity of decisions and actions
- Record keeping - An organisation would need to keep records of all its activities to be able to enforce and manage rules, processes and procedures.
- Impersonality - Impersonal and objective decisions made by managers ensures favouritism and personal prejudice don’t influence decisions
- Competence - Technical skill is the basis for decisions made when selecting, assigning or promoting individuals.
24
Q
What are the 14 principles which make up Henri Fayols approach to adopting a classical organisational structure?
A
- Division of work
- Authority and responsibility
- Discipline
- Unity of command (Workers should only have one manager)
- Unity of direction
- Sub-ordination of individual interest to general interest
- Remuneration of personnel (salaries should be fair and provide satisfaction)
- Centralisation (finding optimal level)
- Scalar chain (authority starting at the top)
- Order (the right materials and the right workers in the right place at the right time)
- Equity (workers should be treated equitably)
- Stability of tenure in personnel
- Initiative (balance procedures with workers initiative)
- Espirit de Corps (Team spirit / harmony)
25
What can an organisation do to ensure an individual acts in a way that is beneficial to the company.
1. Treat as humans rather than machines
2. Recognising humans are not only interested in financial gain
3. Understanding Job security / satisfaction being important
4. Recognition and appreciation for work
5. Good communication
6. Freedom to decide what to do
7. Participating in decision making approaches which affect workers
26
What were the experiments which developed the human relations approach to management and organisational behaviour?
West Electric Company experiments
1. Relay assembly room
2. Interviewing program
3. Bank Wiring observation room
27
What is the relay assembly room experiment and what were the findings?
Six females doing tedious work output was measured under. The experiment used a series of controlled changes including working hours, rest periods, lunch breaks, heating and lighting. In all but one change output increased.
The finding is that extra attention given to workers had increased productivity.
28
What is the interviewing program experiment and what were the findings?
21,000 employees were interviewed to establish the workers feelings about supervision and conditions of work.
The finding is that relationships are important and workers benefit from talking freely about what it is important to them.
29
What is the bank wiring experiment and what were the findings?
14 male workers were placed under observation. Their pay depended on the performance of the group as a whole. Instead of trying to get everyone up to the maximum capacity, the group established its own standards of output well below the optimum.
Developing group norms and social relationships are more important than financial incentives.
30
What defines a systems approach to management and organisational behaviour?
It integrates a Classical approach and a Human Relations approach. It considers the organisation as:
- Open system connected to the environment. Inputs from the environment allow decisions to be made.
- Socio-technological systems
- Psychological and cultural systems aiming to meet the needs of workers in the organisation
31
What defines a contingency approach to management and organisational behaviour?
Contingent approach recognises there is no one best way to manage and that it is a contingent of many factors. Themes introduced by this include:
- Considering alternatives rather than one best way
- Bespoke approaches rather than off the shelf
- Organisational flexibility rather than rigidity
- Adaptive behaviour
32
What defines a postmodern approach to management and organisational behaviour?
Rejects everything we know about management and organisational structure and emphasises a need to adapt to a changing environment. Management needs to be developed and constantly worked on.
33
What personality traits will have an impact on peoples reactions to new systems?
```
Openness or closed minded
Conscientiousness or carless
Extravert or introvert
Agreeableness
Stability
```
34
Which approaches can personality studies be split into and what are the differences?
1. Nomothetic approach - assumes people are born with personality traits which are unlikely to change
2. Idiographic approach - considers everybody to be unique with personality traits shaped over time depending on environment and cultural influences.
3. Other approaches - considers people to have a preference to certain personality traits (MBTI)
35
What models are there for a Nomothetic approach to personality typing?
1. Hans Eyesenck model
| 2. Raymond Cattells 16 PF
36
What dimensions of personality typing does Hans Eyesencks model identify?
Emotional Stability against Intr/extroversion
1. Emotionally Instability / Introversion = Unstable Introvert (Melancholic) Individuals may be quiet, moody, anxious, unsociable, reserved and pessimistic.
2. Emotionally Instability / Extroversion = Unstable Extrovert (Choleric) Individuals may be impulsive, aggressive, optimistic, excitable, restless and changeable.
3. Emotionally Stable / Introversion = Stable Introvert (Phlegmatic) Individuals are likely to be calm, even tempered, thoughtful, reliable, passive and careful.
4. Emotionally Stable / Extroversion = Stable Extrovert (Sanguine) Individuals tend to be sociable, talkative, outgoing, easy going, care free and responsive.
37
What are Raymond Cattells 16 personality factors?
He identified 171 traits but narrowed it to:
1. Tension
2. Warmth
3. Dominance
4. Vigilance
5. Self-Reliance
6. Social Boldness
7. Openness to change
8. Rule-Consciousness
9. Emotional Stability
10. Abstractedness
11. Liveliness
12. Perfectionism
13. Privateness
14. Reasoning
15. Sensitivity
16. Apprehension
38
What dimensions of personality typing does the myres briggs type indicator identify?
1. Introvert / Extrovert
2. Sensing / Intuition
3. Thinking / Feeling
4. Perceiving / Judging
39
What personality traits might an extrovert have?
Interested in taking action and what is happening in their surroundings. They are open, talkative, make friends easily and are interested in new people. They energise by spending time with new people.
40
What personality traits might an introvert have?
Interested in their own thoughts and feelings. Appear reserved, quiet and thoughtful and require peace and quiet. They need their own territory and usually have a limited circle of friends, recharged by alone time.
41
What personality traits might a sensing person have?
Trust concrete data and information received via their senses, they live in the hear and now and can adapt to any situation
42
What personality traits might an intuitive person have?
Are more comfortable with abstract of theoretical information and interpret or gain meaning from it. They don’t like routine and are interested in new things
43
What personality traits might a thinking person have?
Make decisions based on logic and evaluate things by intellect and right or wrong. Can be described as cold/unemotional by others
44
What personality traits might a feeling person have?
Interested in feelings and evaluate things by good or bad. They will take feelings into consideration when making decisions
45
What personality traits might a Perceiving person have?
Can be impulsive and act without preparation, they will prefer to have options and start many things off at once without finishing them
46
What personality traits might a judging person have?
Approach to life that is organised and prefer to have things decided and agreed. They easily follow rules and discipline and plan work ahead and tend to finish it
47
What 5 measures of emotional intelligence are there?
1. Knowing your emotions
2. Managing your emotions
3. Motivating yourself
4. Recognising and understanding others emotions
5. Managing the emotions of others
48
What steps are in David Kolbs learning cycle?
Concrete Evidence > Observation and Reflection > Conceptualisation > Active Experimentation
49
What 4 learning style preferences did David Kolbs learning cycle lead to?
1. Activists (enjoy involvement with new experiments but get bored when implementing)
2. Reflectors (Collect data and come to conclusions after consideration)
3. Theorists (Integrate observations and logic to come up with theories)
4. Pragmatists (Keen to sort things out and want concepts which can be applied)
50
What is the 4 Mat model?
Why? People who want to understand why they are doing something.
What? People who want information to support requests to do something.
How? People who want to get on and do it.
What if? People who work best through self-discovery.
51
What is motivation?
The driving force which pushes you to achieve your goals which will generally be the means of fulfilling a need.
Need - Recognition
Action
Goal - Promotion
Lack of motivation often occurs when there is a lack of clear goals or understanding of needs to be fulfilled.
52
How can theories about what motivates people be split?
1. Content theories - categorises an individuals needs in order to manage them more effectively.
2. Process theories - consider how people can be motivated, the conscious and unconscious process that people go through when deciding whether to do something.
53
What content theories are there?
1. Maslows Hierarchy of needs
2. Herzbergs two factor theory of motivation
3. McClelands theory about motivation
54
What order is Maslows hierarchy of needs starting with the most basic need?
1. Physiological (water, air, warmth, clothing)
2. Safety (safety, security, financial security, freedom from pain and danger)
3. Belonging (needing to be social, family, friendship, intimacy and love)
4. Esteem (ego, appreciation, recognition, independence, freedom and achievement)
5. Self-Actualisation (Relates to personal growth and fulfilment of potential)
55
What elements of work meet the potential needs in Maslows hierarchy of needs?
1. Physiological - pay, working conditions
2. Safety - safe working conditions, job security
3. Belonging - harmonious working groups
4. Esteem - job title, recognition, feedback
5. Self-Actualisation - Challenging job, achievement
56
What is Herzbergs two factor theory of motivation?
1. Hygiene factors - Prevent and avoid unpleasantness (company policy, administration, salary, style of supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions)
2. Motivator factors - Create satisfaction and personal growth for workers (Promotion, recognition, responsibility, challenging work, achievement, growth)
57
What is McClelands theory about motivation?
We are all motivated by one of three things (gaining or not losing them):
1. Achievement (goals, objectives, outcomes, vision)
2. Power (control, power, leading others, being followed)
3. Affiliation (connection, recognition, harmony, rapport)
58
What process theories are there of motivation?
1. Viktor Vrooms theory
| 2. Lyman Porter and Edward Lawlers theory
59
What is Viktor Vrooms theory of motivation?
The amount of effort someone will put into a task is dependent on:
1. The anticipated satisfaction to be obtained from the reward
2. Their own expectancy in obtaining the desired results
60
What is Lyman Porter and Edward Lawlers theory of motivation?
The model goes in the following order:
1. Effort - will be impacted by the reward they hope to get and the level of effort needed to achieve it.
2. Performance - is not only impacted by effort but by their ability to perform the role
3. Reward - performance will be affected by the perceived equity of the rewards.
4. Satisfaction - good performance on a task and the resulting rewards will lead to satisfaction.
61
What did Porter, Lawler and Herzberg all believe about categorisation of rewards?
They are split into:
1. Intrinsic rewards - challenge, interest, team identity, pride, satisfaction (from within the individual)
2. Extrinsic rewards - wages, bonus, salaries, prizes... (Tangible)
62
What were Laure Mullins 5 key dimensions of job satisfaction?
1. Individual factors: personality, qualifications, life experience
2. Social factors: work groups, relationships with others at work, interaction
3. Cultural factors: values, beliefs, ethics and attitudes
4. Organisational factors: structure, policies, procedures, working conditions
5. External factors: STEEPLE
63
What did Bob Blauner describe job dissatisfaction as?
1. Powerlessness
2. Meaninglessness
3. Isolation
4. Self-estrangement
64
What 5 factors did Richard Hackman and Greg Oldman identify which can improve job environments when increased?
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
65
What are the benefits to an individual of working in a team?
a sense of belonging,
support from others,
appreciation,
less pressure arising from reliance on group to achieve outcome not one individual and even safety in numbers.
66
What are the benefits to an organisation of working in a team?
```
greater productivity,
improved quality of goods and services,
effective use of resources,
better decision making and problem-solving,
better generation of ideas.
```
67
What different teams might an organisation form?
```
A division
Task force
Procurement function
Sourcing team
Best practice forum
Change programme
```
68
Why might a work group be pulled together?
If they share characteristics such as:
1. the procurement tasks they undertake
2. roles they have (e.g. in category teams)
3. shared purpose (e.g. in savings targets)
4. shared interests (e.g. in practice groups)
5. shared beliefs and values (e.g. in a change programme)
69
What should a work group have?
1. A definable membership
2. Agreed objectives
3. A degree of interdependence between the members of the group
4. Shared tasks
70
How did professor Edgar Schein define work groups?
People who:
1. Interact with one another
2. Are psychologically aware of each other
3. Perceive themselves to be in a group
71
What observations about being in a group were made during the bank wiring observation room?
1. Not to be a rate buster (Don't exceed the groups normal work levels)
2. Not to be a squealer (don't tell tales)
3. Not to be a chiseler (perform at a lower rate)
4. Not to be officious (don't take advantage of authority)
72
What characteristics can a group have?
```
Informal
Formal
Level of management involvement
Organisation
Size
Is it a team (i.e. is it accountable for delivering a goal)
```
73
What methods are there for organising a team?
1. Network teams facilitate working across organisations e.g. buyers and suppliers
2. Virtual teams communicate via technology
3. Self-Managed teams have no leadership
4. Matrix teams have dual authority (functional leader and PM)
5. Cross functional bring different skills from across an organisation
6. Multi skilled teams means any member can perform the required tasks
74
What 4 headings did Laurie Mullins identify for cohesion of a group?
1. Membership (right size group for relationships)
2. Work environment (sitting next to each other increases cohesion)
3. Organisational (how the manager requests things)
4. Group development and maturity
75
What 5 stages of group development and maturity did Bruce Tuckman and Mary-Ann Jenson identify which an effective team will find an effective route through each?
1. Forming - team members don't know each other
2. Storming - team development is marked with clashes of personality and differences of opinion
3. Norming - members understand each other as team is established. Behaviour becomes normal
4. Performing - team stretches to high performance
5. Adjourning - tasks are complete and team dispanding
76
Although cohesion is generally a good thing between a group, what are some potential disadvantages?
1. Ignoring alternative views
2. Excessive optimism
3. Lack of vulnerability
4. Ignoring negative feedback
5. Norms that maintain the status quo and shutdown trouble makers
6. Acting negatively to outside members
77
What factors are required for a team to be effective?
1. Clear objectives (SMART)
2. Mix of roles covered
3. Co-operative working with influence on stakeholders
4. Effective management of conflict
5. Appropriate behaviours of team members
6. Appropriate leadership style
7. Appropriate membership of team
8. Workable processes / procedures
9. Access to the right resources / information
10. Evaluation and feedback
11. Self-awareness of team members
12. Cohesive group
13. Open and effective two way communication
14. Supportive group norms
15. Trust
78
What roles did Meredith Belbin identify that needed to be filled in an effective team?
1. Plant: creative / imaginative. Solves difficult problems and comes up with ideas
2. Resource investigator: extrovert, enthusiastic, communicative explores opportunities and develops contracts
3. Co-ordinator (chair): mature, confident and good organiser. Clarifies goals and encourages decision making.
4. Shaper: thrives on pressure, has the drive to overcome obstacles
5. Monitor / Evaluator: a sober strategic who considers all options and makes sound judgements
6. Specialist: single minded, provides knowledge
7. Complete / Finisher: searches out errors, omissions and makes sure the work is delivered on time.
8. Implementor: turns ideas into practical actions.
9. Team worker: co-operative, listens, builds team
79
What are the 10 behaviours which Laurie Mullins identified which can be observed in teams?
1. Taking initiative
2. Brainstorming
3. Offering positive ideas
4. Drawing others in
5. Being responsive to others
6. Harmonising
7. Challenging
8. Being Obstructive
9. Clarifying / Summarising
10. Performing group roles (minute taker, chair person)
80
What stakeholders might a procurement specialist have?
1. Senior management
2. Sponsors of projects
3. Trade union officials
4. Government officials
5. Colleagues from other disciplines
6. Customers
7. Suppliers
81
What roles might a procurement specialist be trying to fulfil when influencing these stakeholders?
1. Strategic - developing strategy
2. Process - developing processes
3. Operational - ensuring optimum quality/price balance
4. Supply chain management - Building relationships in the supply chain
5. Service Management - managing an effective procurement team
82
What is mendelows Interest / Outcome graph and how should stakeholders be managed?
High interest in Issue, High interest in Outcome: Have regular 121 meetings
Low interest in Issue, High interest in Outcome: Identify means of increasing support
High interest in Issue, Low interest in Outcome: Keep well informed
Low interest in Issue, Low interest in Outcome: Watch
83
What 8 potential sourced of conflict in teams did Laurie Mullins identify?
1. Differences in perception (values, belief, attitudes)
2. Departmentalisation and Specialisation (looking out for individual department)
3. Limited Resource (competing for resource)
4. Nature of work activities (reliance on output of others to complete your task)
5. Role conflict (differences of opinion about who should be doing the specific role)
6. Violation of territory (ownership of roles)
7. Inequitable treatment (unfair or unjust treatment)
8. Environmental changes (STEEPLE)
84
What is Kenneth Thomas model for resolving conflicts?
Wants to achieve own objective (High), wants to achieve others objective (High): Collaborates and tries to reach a win-win position.
Wants to achieve own objective (High), wants to achieve others objective (Low): Competes forcing the issue without regard for the other person.
Wants to achieve own objective (Low), wants to achieve others objective (High): Accommodates the other persons position in order to maintain good relations.
Wants to achieve own objective (Low), wants to achieve others objective (Low): Avoids and doesn’t address the conflict
Wants to achieve own objective (Middle), wants to achieve others objective (Middle): Compromises
85
What 3 elements of human capital did Lynda Gratton suggest belong to each member of staff?
1. Intellectual - the value of knowledge, skills and abilities of the individual
2. Emotional - the value of the EQ of the person (self-awareness, self-motivation and commitment)
3. Social - the value of the person in the collaborative relationships they have built throughout the organisation.
86
What HR activities might exist in an organisation?
1. Organisational culture and ethics - ensuring individuals are treated fairly and equally
2. Organisational structure - ensuring democratic functioning of the organisation
3. Compliance and Legislation - developing codes of conduct and conditions of service, ensuring compliance with employment legislation
4. Employee Relations and Development - Employee relations, supporting stability of employment
87
When developing a role, what 2 tasks should be undertaken?
Job Analysis - a systematic procedure for obtaining detailed information about a job. Observing work, studying paperwork or interviewing employees in the role.
Job Design - The arrangement of tasks to decrease job dissatisfaction
88
When designing a job, an important thing to consider is motivation, what factors did Richard Hackman and Greg Oldman that motivate people to deliver high quality work?
1. Job empowerment (discretion over work)
2. Job enrichment (increasing responsibilities)
3. Job rotation (providing a variety of tasks)
4. Job enlargement (additional work in line with growing development)
5. Variety of skills required
6. Completion of whole pieces of work
7. Meaningful impact on others
8. Independence of how to think and act
89
Job analysis and Job design is generally done to create a job specification. What should this include?
1. Skills required
2. Knowledge required
3. Attributes of the individual
90
Competencies of a procurement role can be split into 3 categories, what are they?
1. Strategic: developing strategies / relationships / commission projects
2. Management: develop operational relationships / introduce improvements / select suppliers / produce specs
3. Technical: administer contracts / measure performance / negotiate
91
What is a competency framework?
Job roles are across the top with skills, attributes or knowledge down the y axis. Each box is ticked if the skill is required to support that role. Scores of individuals can be marked against the competency framework to see how far they are from developing.
92
What is the recruitment process?
Lawfully and fairly undertaking the following tasks:
1. Use a system to attract appropriate candidates
2. Shortlist the most suitable candidates
3. Select the best individual for the job
4. Establish the individual in the job role
93
What uses are there of a job description?
1. to recruit, select and induct staff
2. for grading and deciding pay conditions
3. to clarify and explain work to individuals
4. as a reference point in order to adapt to changing demands or performance problems
94
What is likely to be included in a job description?
1. Job title
2. Department
3. Job Summary
4. Job content
5. Key accountabilities
6. Reporting relationships
7. Working conditions
8. Special conditions
9. Key terms & conditions
95
What is a person specification document?
Used to describe skills or attributes to undertake a role and usually classified as desirable or essential. These include:
1. Aptitudes
2. Disposition
3. Physical attributes
4. Attainments
5. Interests
6. Intelligence
96
Recruitment processes should be fair and shouldn't discriminate. What is meant by this?
Everyone should have an equal opportunity regardless of:
1. Age
2. Disabilities
3. Gender
4. Gender reassignment
5. Sexual orientation
6. Marital or civil partnership status
7. Religion
8. Beliefs
97
Before training a TNA (training needs analysis) should be undertaken. What is this?
The change in behaviour required should be understood. The process may include:
1. User Analysis: competency based assessment, understanding skill of users
2. Content Analysis: involves analysis or knowledge of information required to undertake a job
3. Training Suitability Analysis: is training the most appropriate option?
4. Work Analysis: Reviewing the work and job role
5. Context Analysis: analysing the business need for organisational context
6. Cost-benefit analysis: Involves an analysis of the training payback
98
Where can information be gathered in order to create a TNA?
1. Self-assessment
2. Observation
3. Peer assessment
4. Customer feedback
5. Performance data
6. Future challenges
99
What methods are there of bridging a competence gap?
1. Training
2. Mentoring
3. Coaching
4. Self-Managed learning
5. Organisational learning
6. Experimental learning
100
What is blended learning?
Learning which has more traditional training mixed in with technology training.
101
What is action learning?
Groups of individuals work on real problems. The individuals have a chance to solve real problems.
102
Why are 121's a good tool?
They allow pro-active performance monitoring:
1. Gather and share performance evidence
2. Recognise and praise achievements
3. Share useful feedback on performance
4. Direct, steer and encourage high performance
5. Adjust plans for changing circumstances
103
In an annual appraisal you may identify training and development needs. What steps might you take to do this?
1. Complete a pre-appraisal form
2. Create the right environment
3. Ensure the right balance of communication
4. Agree objectives and training / development needs
5. Formalise the process (summarise discussions)
