Academic Work Flashcards
Three Project Management constraints
- Scope: tasks based on topic and academic work
- Time: based on deadlines, available time per day/week
- Cost: e.g. fees for literature, communication, travel, printing
Science and Research
Science pursues the goal of producing new knowledge and deepening, extending, confirming or refuting existing knowledge.
Research consists of systematic investigations through which facts or principles are established or information about a subject is gathered.
Academic work seeks to conduct methodical studies with the goal of testing a hypotheses or answering a specific questions in a highly structured manner.
Scientificity
Scientificity A fundamental principle for scientific statements is: “(…) that the statements made are verifiable by anyone, that the process through which they emerged can be reconstructed from start to finish and that thereby, anyone who follows the same process in the same manner, will arrive at the same results.” (Peterßen, 1994, S. 25)
Forms of knowledge
Circles: everyday - knowledge - scientific
Success Factors of Academic Work
Applying scientific principles and approaches
Good time management
Concrete focus
Precise Research Question(s) (RQ)
Optimal methodology for answering RQ
Clear and comprehensive structure („red ribbon“)
Correct citation
Adequate number of sources (quality of sources)
Appropriate language (vocabulary, spelling, grammar, etc.)
Fulfilled formal criteria
Scientific Principles and Standards:
Pyramid
Scientific Principles - Scientific Practice - Academic Work
Everyday knowledge vs. Scientific knowledge
EK:
- based on observation of concrete
(individual) situations and actions
- guided by “everyday theories”
- individual, less precise, ambiguous, uncertain knowledge
SK:
- based on the generalization of similar observations
- systematically generated, precisely defined, intersubjectively verifiable knowledge
- use of scientific theories and methods
Fundamental scientific principles
- Honesty
- Accountability
- Respect/Fairness
Honesty
- Truthful representation of the observed facts and the gained knowledge
- Correct and complete citation of sources
- Naming of other persons who were involved in the finding of results
- Pointing out unexpected and also undesired results
- No plagiarism, deception, or data manipulation
Respect/Fairness
- Respectful, appreciative interaction
- Open communication
- Mutual assistance
- Honest recognition of the performance of others
- Accurate representation of the contributions of others
Accountability
Dimensions:
* Self-control
* Towards the work team, also in the context of cooperation
* To science as a system
* Accountability to the environment, to life, and to the global society
- Critical attitude towards and reflection on the consequences of new processes and products
- Honest risk assessments and willingness to set limits in a timely manner
Questions & Principles:
- Are the expected future effects of the findings or new solution pointed out?
- Are the achievements and contributions of others being appreciated enough?
- Did you consider the consequences of the proposed practices and new solutions?
- Are the data and statistics used credible?
- Are the statements sufficiently substantiated and the sources correctly and completely reproduced?
- Are the facts described and presented truthfully?
- Is there open communication?
- Are the expected future effects of the findings or new solution pointed out? - A
- Are the achievements and contributions of others being appreciated enough? - R
- Did you consider the consequences of the proposed practices and new solutions? - A
- Are the data and statistics used credible? - H
- Are the statements sufficiently substantiated and the sources correctly and completely reproduced? - H
- Are the facts described and presented truthfully? - H
- Is there open communication? - R
Principles of Good Scientific Practice
- Objectivity: research can be tested independently from the individual scientist
- Reliability: consistency of measurement
- Validity: extent to which evidence and theory support interpretations of results
Objectivity
The degree of independence of the results obtained:
* By the observer/interviewer and author of a scientific paper
* By the evaluator/reviewer Objectivity requires:
* Unbiased scientific procedure
* Self-inspection
* Factual argumentation and neutral, unprejudiced presentation of the results obtained
Reliability
The degree of reliability achieved shows:
* How reliably the measuring instruments measure: accuracy of measurement.
* How consistent the results are.
* Whether other people can arrive at the same results when they replicate your research using the same instruments and methods.
Validity
- Whether the results are valid: addressing the correct content areas (content validity).
- Matching questions
- How accurately a characteristic that is being examined is actually examined.
- Adequately large, representative samples.
Other principles
- Comprehensibility: Through the inclusion of all important aspects of your research process and/or results. Your work should be complete.
- Clarity: by using precise language, e.g., short sentences, and definition of terms.
- Transparency: by keeping primary results, providing a clear account of all of the steps that you have made and explain in detail how you proceeded and what influenced your decisions.
- Originality: measures the ability to produce uncommon ideas or ideas that are totally new or unique.
- Relevance: your research should fill a gap in existing scientific knowledge, something that has not been extensively studied before.
Scientific Approaches
- Deduction
- Induction
Deduction
- From general to specific.
- Drawing conclusions about particulars from general premises e.g., deriving hypothesis from theories and models.
Induction
- From specific to general.
- Applying inferences from specific observations to a theoretical population.
Deduction: top-down approach
Theory -> Hypothesis -> Observation -> Confirmation
Induction: Bottom-Up Approach
Observation -> Pattern -> Tentative Hypothesis -> Theory
Types of research
Theoretical Research
- Develops and verifies hypotheses on the basis of literature and theoretical findings.
Empirical Research
- Research is performed in direct relation to an empirical subject.
Types of research (2)
Explorative study
- Explore an unfamiliar area in order to learn about it; preliminary studies, pretests; goal: hypothesis generation; qualitative methods (e.g., expert interviews)
Descriptive Study
- Gives a detailed account in words; obtaining information about the actual state of an issue of interest; social reporting, official statistics; objective: description and diagnosis; quantitative methods.
General Format Of Academic Work
● Introduction 10%: Presenting the research problem in a general form
● Main body 80%: Theoretical framework, testing hypotheses, interpreting results
● Conclusion 10%: Focused presentation of overall results (and connection with existing studies and further recommendations for research)
Elements of a Written Academic Paper
● Title page
● Abstract ( before introduction; add key words)
● Table of contents
● List of Figures
● List of tables
● List of abbreviations
● Text (introduction-research questions, objectives, methodology, conclusion and discussion)
● List of Literature
● Appendix- Register of the appendix- Appendix 1- 2- 3
● Affidavit
Arrangement of material
1.) Preliminaries: title page, abstract (dedication), preface, table of contents, list of tables, list of figures or illustrations, list of abbreviations
2.) Reference material: bibliography, appendices (e.g. interview guideline, category system, content analysis, tables).
Research typologies
Qualitative
- Research Objectives:
- Discovery of new ideas, insights, and feelings
- Example: Social media used by political parties in Egypt (how, why)
- Type Of Research:
- Usually exploratory
- Type Of Questions:
- Open-ended, semi-structured, unstructured
- Sample Size:
- Small
- Type Of Analyses:
- Subjective, Interpretive
- Representativeness:
- Limited
Quantitative
- Research Objectives:
- Validation of facts, estimates, relationships
- Example: Media usage of refugees (which, time spent)
- Type Of Research:
- Descriptive and causal
- Type Of Questions:
- Mostly structured
- Sample Size:
- Large
- Type Of Analyses:
- Statistical, Descriptive, causal
- Representativeness:
- Good
Qualitative research data types
- Data in qualitative research is not characterized by numbers.
- Instead, it is:
- Textual
- Visual
- Oral
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative
● classifies features, counts them, and constructs statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
● Determines the relationship between one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population.
Most common quantitative research tools
● Surveys/ Questionnaires: ask questions (face-to-face interview, telephone, mail, internet)
● Text-Analysis: application of one or more methods for drawing statistical inferences or patterns from text populations.
● Experiment: apply a treatment and measure results (before and/or after) - this is the only method that can demonstrate causal relationships between variables
Strengths of Quantitative Studies
- Broader study: Involves a greater number of subjects, enhancing the generalization of the results.
- Greater objectivity and accuracy: Results are more objective and accurate.
- Replication and comparison: Allows for replication and comparison with similar studies.
- Summarizing information: Capable of summarizing vast sources of information and making comparisons across categories and over time.
- Reduced personal bias: Easier to avoid personal bias of the researcher.
Limitations of Quantitative Studies
- Less detail on behavior: Results provide fewer details on behavior, attitudes, and motivation.
- Lack of contextual detail: Missing the contextual nuances of the subject matter.
- Inflexible discovery process: The static and rigid approach leads to an inflexible process of discovery.
- Structural bias: Potential for structural bias and false representation due to standard questions matching preconceived hypotheses.
- Narrow dataset: Often results in a narrow and sometimes superficial dataset.
- Numerical descriptions: Provides numerical descriptions rather than detailed narratives, generally offering less elaborate accounts of human perception.
Strengths of Qualitative Studies
- Interaction with participants: Provides insights into participants’ perceptions through direct interaction.
- Description of phenomena: Effective in describing existing phenomena and current situations.
- Flexible data collection: Offers flexible methods for data collection, subsequent analysis, and interpretation of collected information.
- Holistic view: Provides a holistic view of the phenomena under investigation.
- Research in participants’ terms: Engages with research subjects in their own language and on their own terms.
Social Desirability
- is the tendency of individuals to present themselves favourably
with respect to current social norms and standards. - refers to the tendency of research subjects to give socially desirable
responses instead of choosing responses that are reflective of their true feelings.
How to Avoid Social Desirability
- „Exclusion“ of the interviewer
- Question batteries
- Phrasing of the questions
Most common qualitative research tools
- Participant Observation
- Focus Group
- Interviews
- Content Analysis
- Discourse Analysis
Participant Observation: Definition
- A process enabling researchers to learn about the activities of the people under study in the natural setting through observing and participating in those activities.
- Observations enable the researcher to describe existing situations using the five senses.
Participant Observation: Challenges
Challenge 1 What to observe.
Challenge 2 How to observe.
Challenge 3 How to preserve what is observed.
Challenge 4 How to tell what was observed.
5 Types of Participant Observation
- External Participation: lowest degree of involvement in observation; e.g. observing situations on television or videotape
- Passive Participation: researcher is present at the scene of action but does not interact or participate (from observation post; assumes the role of a bystander or spectator) like attending a concert
- Balanced Participation: researcher maintains a balance between being an insider and being an outsider. (main focus – collecting data)
- Active Participation: researcher generally does what others in the setting do; beginning with observation to learn the rules, becoming actively engaged in the activities of the setting. (The observed people are aware of it.)
- Total Participation: researcher is a natural participant; highest level of involvement; usually when the researcher studies something in which he or she is already a natural participant.
Advantages and disadvantages of
the Observation Method
Adv.
✔ The observation method is an easy method since it usually does not require technical skills.
✔ The Observation method provides high accuracy since the observer directly interacts with the observed.
✔ It is a universal and standard method that is used all over the world. The observation method describes the phenomenon exactly as it occurs in the natural research environment.
✔ In the observation method the very minimum cooperation of the respondent is required.
Disadvantages
o In the observation method, not everything is observed. Feelings, emotions, and opinions remain unobserved.
o Observation is a costly method since it requires a lot of things.
o Observation is a very time consuming process, and there are chances that the observer and the observed will lose interest in it after a certain point.
o There is absolutely no way of knowing the past life. The researcher has to rely on these documents which are not always accurate.
Focus Group: definition and types
An informal discussion among a group of selected individuals about a particular topic.
Effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in generating broad overviews of issues.
There are two broad types of focus group approaches:
▪ A structured approach which is employed more in market research
▪ A less rigid and less structured approach which has emerged from focus group research in the social sciences
Focus Group: features
- Qualitative research method in which the researcher conducts a collective interview of typically 6-8 participants.
- Data generated from interactions between participants. Comments, questions, sharing experiences and views offer insight into participants’ feelings and thoughts within group dynamic.
- Group usually homogenous (from similar backgrounds, with similar demographic characteristics), allowing the researcher to address specific target groups e.g., experts on a particular topic.
- Insight into new topics with little or no previous research and existing theories or literature. Gauge initial knowledge, experiences, attitudes, and perspectives pertaining to the novel topic.
- It is often employed for discovery and brainstorming in exploratory research designs.
Challenges of a Focus Group
- Sampling
- Group Dynamics
- Moderator
- Desirability
- Cost and Effort
- Quality and Quantity of Questions
Open-Ended Questions
▪ Open-ended questions (W-questions) allow for free expression. “What did you do yesterday?“
▪ No answer categories are provided.
▪ Open-ended questions are mostly used in qualitative studies where details and rather individual, subjective assessments are important.
▪ Open-ended questions lead to answers with larger amounts of text, which are quantified by categorization before being evaluated.
Pros and cons of Open-Ended
Questions
Pros:
* Higher complexity /more detailed
information
* Respondents mention new aspects that the researcher had not thought of / This is especially true for unexplored objects
Cons:
* Wrong direction or fragmentation of the answers
* Distortion of results due to the different levels of eloquence of the respondents
* Effort to analyze and interpret data
Types Of Interviews
- Structured Interview ‘mostly used for quantitative types’
- Wording of each question asked exactly as written
- Reduces interviewer’s impact within the situation
- Keeps data comparable and easier to analyse
- Allows complex questions - Semi-structured Interview ‘mostly used for qualitative type’
- General interview guidelines
- In between standardised interviews and informal conversation - Unstructured Interview (narrative interview) ‘it can be used for qualitative type’
- “informal conversational interview”, no set order to questions
- Generates highly individual responses
- The interviewer can respond to any situation which emerges
during the interview
- The information is random.
Question types
Question type, Aim, and Example
-
Introducing questions
- Aim: Introducing the topic
- Example: Please describe journalism education in your country. What are typical educational pathways in order to become a journalist?
-
Follow up questions
- Aim: Elaboration on the initial answer
- Example: How do JE programs work together with other institutions? (e.g., international organizations, journalism unions)
-
Probing questions
- Aim: Follow up and getting more concrete details
- Example: Do JE programs work together with human rights organizations? If so, please describe the forms of collaboration.
-
Specifying questions
- Aim: Follow up and getting more details
- Example: Do the programs usually include practical parts such as internships, practical seminars, joint projects, or exchanges with the media industry? Please specify.
-
Direct questions
- Aim: Getting a yes or no answer
- Example: Do you think there is a balance of theoretical and practical knowledge in JE in your country?
-
Indirect questions
- Aim: Trying to identify the interviewee’s “true” opinion
- Example: To what extent is it possible for students to specialize in a certain field of knowledge?
-
Structuring questions
- Aim: Moving to the next subject
- Example: Moving on to the actual teaching. Please describe teaching styles and methods commonly used in the JE programs in your country.
-
Question with future time-reference
- Aim: Predictions for the future
- Example: From your perspective, what will major changes and challenges be in the field of JE in your country in the next couple of years?
Pre-test of the Instrument
With a pretest the researcher verifies the usability of the interview guideline
The pretest shows whether the questions are properly formulated and whether the questionnaire user-friendly (wording, sequencing of questions)
If necessary, changes are made
Transcription of Interviews
Practical aspects of interview transcription:
* Playing, rewinding and pausing the digital recording – writing down the interview word by word
* Using speech recognition software (e.g. Dragon ) – careful! Most audio recognition software make mistakes – need to control the result.
* Try to see transcription not only as tedious time-consuming work, but as the phase in which you engage strongly with your collected data.
Skills for conducting interviews
- Avoid unintentional interruptions, let people talk, give them time to think, tolerate pauses
- Listen carefully, then the interviewee is encouraged to continue
- Be respectful; any answer offered will be accepted
- Do not be satisfied with yes and no answers; ask follow-up questions
- Be appreciative and thank the interview partner when finished and answer any questions they might have about the research
Choosing Interview Partners – Levels of Knowledge
Exprets -> Well-informed citizens -> People on the streets
Choosing Interview Partners - Expert
Knowledge
“Expert knowledge” is what qualified individuals know as a result of their technical practices, training, and experience.
Types of Expert Knowledge:
* Specific knowledge of content within a research field
* Internal knowledge of structures, processes and events in an organisation
* Experts are usually identified on the basis of qualifications, training, experience, professional memberships, and peer recognition.
* BUT: Broader definitions of expertise may include untrained people who possess direct, practical experience (Burgman et al. 2011).
Choosing Interview Partners – Defining the “Expert”
- Experts are usually identified on the basis of qualifications, training, experience, professional memberships, and peer recognition.
- BUT: Broader definitions of expertise may include untrained people who possess direct, practical
experience.
What is a sample?
A sample is a subset of a population that is used to represent the entire group as a whole.
Purposive sampling
- “Selective, subjective sampling”
- Participants are grouped according to preselected criteria relevant to a particular research question (for example, journalists in a country or media managers)
- Sample sizes depend on the resources and time available, as well as the study’s objectives.
Eg; influence of news technologies on journalistic practices.
Quota Sampling
Proportional quota sampling (idea representative sample)
▪ Decision on how many people with which characteristics should be included as participants (characteristics might include age, place of residence, gender, class profession, marital status…)
▪ Assumptions on who might have insights into the research topic
▪ Using recruitment strategies appropriate to the location, culture, and study population– find people who fit these criteria.
Eg: Average time of media use.
Snowball Sampling
▪ Participants or informants with whom contact has already been made use their (social) networks to refer the researcher to other people who could potentially participate in or contribute to the study.
▪ Snowball sampling is often used to find and recruit “hidden populations”, that is, groups not easily accessible to researchers through other sampling strategies.
▪ Eg: the media usage of drug users
Sampling: features
Purposive: Preselected
criteria with a connection to the
topic
E.g., influence of new technologies
on journalistic practices
Quota: Guarantees a proportional representation
E.g., average time of media use
Snowball: Find and recruit hidden populations
E.g., the media usage of drug users
Subtypes of questions
Questions must be formulated in such a way that every respondent can understand them.
Subtypes of questions in a questionnaire:
1. Factual questions can be answered immediately without too much thought e.g. “Do you own a TV?”
2. Knowledge questions determine respondents’ level of information or knowledge e.g. “Who is the German Interior Minister?”
3. Attitude and opinion questions seek respondents’ opinions about different topics e.g. “Are you for or against abortion?”
4. Behavioural questions determine how respondents behave regarding a certain topic e.g. “How many hours did you watch TV yesterday?”
5. Sociodemographic questions are not content-based and are usually asked at the end e.g. age, sex, education, occupation, marital status, income, religion etc.
Practical Tips for creating a good
Questionnaire I
Practical Tips for Creating a Good Questionnaire I
Question Wording:
✔ Avoid too obvious questions
✔ Consider individual words: “Do you think that…. should ban” or “…. should not allow”?
✔ Think of alternatives: “Are you for Agenda 2010?” “Are you for or are you against Agenda 2010?
✔ Avoid very complex question formulations
✔ Decision between “open questions” and “closed questions“
Context Effects:
✔ Arrangement of the questions in the questionnaire, in particular, transmission from one question to the following question (s) (also: priming or halo effects)
Possible Answers:
✔ Type of scaling (e.g., degree of approval)
✔ Rating (very important…not important at all) or ranking (most important…least important).
Practical Tips for creating a good
Questionnaire II
Introduce respondents to the survey.
“Icebreaker” possibly by simple entry question.
Introduction
From general to specific.
Do not jump back and forth between the topics.
The order of topics could influence the answer.
Consider a filter guide.
Organization
Possibly as a summary or open question in which the respondents can again comment on the
survey topic once again.
Final question
As long as necessary but as short as possible.
* Concentration period (in general and for special target groups)
Likert Scale
- Aim: Measure ‘opinions, attitudes, or behaviors’ in a scientifically accepted and validated manner.
- How: by asking participants
to show their level of agreement or disagreement with a given statement or a question on a metric scale (usually a series of five or seven answer statements). - Also: they can measure other
spectrums, such as frequency, satisfaction, or importance
Content Analysis: Definition
“Content analysis is an empirical method, with the aim of a systematic, intersubjective and transparent description of content-related and formal-related characteristics of messages”. (see Früh 2011: 27)
Content analysis: basics
Content analysis:
One of the most used methods in the field of communication science.
Involves the systematic observation of patterns within objects of analysis.
Not persons, but media products, such as:
Newspaper articles
Lyrics of songs
TV and radio shows
Movies
Advertisements
Video clips
Social media exchanges
Blogs
Challenges of content analysis
Time
Subjectivity
Language
Costs
Procedure
Access
Content analysis – Basics II
Conducting content analysis
requires to purposively select and
reduce, not to analyze the entire
complexity of a text.
Only particular characteristics of
a text are selected, all others are
left aside.
Aim 1: To identify and analyze the
characteristic and defining
elements of media content.
Aim 2: To display the connection
between individual text elements
and selected, comprehensive
units of meaning (categories)
Coding
is an analytical process in which data, in
both quantitative form (such as questionnaires results)
or qualitative form (such as interview transcripts) are
categorized to facilitate analysis
A codebook contains
- a list of codes (or classification rules),
- definitions of these codes, and
- examples of how to use the codes in practice.
It helps researchers to
* identify and analyze themes in a data set;
* stay organized and consistent during the coding process;
* ensure systematic and replicable coding of the data.
RESEARCH CYCLE
- Field/area
- Topic selection
- Problem definition/ Research gap
- Research purpose
- Research questions (hypotheses)
- Theoretical framework/Model
- Methodology
- Data collection
- Data analysis
- Interpretation of results
- Presentation of results
Academic work process
Step 1
Identify working field
Step 2
Define topic and research question(s)
Step 3
Research, reading, evaluating sources
Step 4
Planning, writing, structuring
Step 5
Presenting and visualizing
Selecting a Topic
*A good topic should interest you and fit the assignment.
How to find a good topic- Selecting a Topic: Personal Interest
Important: You should be interested in the topic but neutral!
Sometimes bad ideas:
o Generally: topics that concern you personally
o Wars, conflicts (for people from countries involved)
o Religion
Selecting a topic: Practical aspect
- Relevant for the future : how can I apply it? Career, professional growth, PhD, etc.
- Realistic objectives: how much can I handle?
- Not too broad
- Having prior knowledge about the subject
- Accessible: are literature/sources
available?
Narrowing the topic
To narrow the topic down, you can:
● Decide on a limited time period (elections, 2005-2010, etc.)
● Choose specific objects of research (e.g., selected newspapers)
● Find a particular perspective on the issue
Finding a title
The title of an academic research paper can be rather long. It has to be concrete and informative regarding:
-Keywords and main claims
-Type of work (content analysis, comparative study, etc.)
-Time period (if applicable)
Academic Titles: Informative vs. Attractive
- Not a journalistic title; no need to attract wide public attention
- There should be no doubts about the content
- Logical: easy to find in search engines (key words)
Research Questions
● What are the specific questions you want to answer with your study?
● Are your questions answerable?
● Are the terms you use clear?
Hypothesis
● A scientific hypothesis is: an assumption that claims the correlation or derivation between two or more variables.
● The hypothesis must be derived from the research question.
● one hypothesis to each question.
A hypothesis is NOT a theory! A hypothesis is either a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon or a reasoned prediction of a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena. While a theory is a tested, well-substantiated, unifying explanation for a set of verified, proven factors.
A theory is always backed by evidence; a hypothesis is only a suggested possible outcome and is testable and falsifiable.
Why structure is important?
- Solid foundation of your academic work.
- Important for readers to
follow your arguments and
understand your point. - Cohesion: logical flow of your
ideas and thoughts. - Can be adjusted later if
necessary. - Helps define the direction of your work (for e.g., which sources, definitions, theories, … are needed).
Introduction
Introduces the subject and the problem that is discussed in the paper. It sets the context for the study and explains its aims.
● Provide the main reasons why you undertake the study (e.g., research gap, new method, additional data etc.)
● Explains the aim of your research and clearly state the research question(s)
● Specify how the research contributes to the field or advances knowledge
● Briefly (!) outline the state of research and the background of your study (refer to relevant studies to support your arguments)
● Give an overview of the paper‘s composition (e.g., Chapter 1 discusses…, Chapter 2 is aimed at…, Chapter 3 is devoted to…)
Main Body
The main body is the heart of your paper. It contains the most important information supporting your arguments. It develops your idea, discusses the literature and presents your findings. Possible content:
● Literature review
● Methodology
● Results of the research
● Discussion of the results
Conclusion
Describes the most important findings of the paper in the context of the formulated problem. By this time it should be clear to the reader how you reached your results, how you interpreted them and how you came to your conclusions.
The conclusion is directly related to your research question(s) and the stated purpose of the study.
Elaborate on the broader implications of the research.
Make specific recommendations for future research to further advance
the field of study (unanswered research questions).
Do not simply summarize again the results; instead, synthesize them in a concise way that the reader will remember.
Do not to overgeneralize the results, as well as avoid suggestions or conclusions that the research doesn’t really support.
Do not add new information to a conclusion. If something is important, put it in the main body.
Headings & Subheadings
Chapter headings structure the text.
They refer to the information that is discussed there.
In doing so, headings guide readers through the paper.
Guidelines:
* The heading system should be clear and logical.
* The wording of headings and sub-headings should be alike, but
not too similar.
* If you introduce a new level, it should have at least two subchapters (otherwise none subchapter)!
Presenting Data: Illustrations
WHY and WHEN should you visualize?
* Simplify and illustrate complex issues.
* Compress comprehensive information (to keep essential data).
* Outline and clarify key points (arguments, correlations).
* Increase attention of the reader
Essential elements:
* In-text explanation
* Self-explanatory information
* Legend (if necessary) and title
* The information source
Illustrations should be
* unambiguous,
* meaningful and
* efficient.
Selecting Sources: Strategies
HOW can you find relevant sources?
- Key Word Search
Tip: Create a list of key
words for your topic.
- Systematic Search
- Based on your topic
and key words you
systematically search
all literature lists and
catalogues for all
relevant sources.
- Snowball
Method
- Going from one source
to the next by
searching its footnotes
and references for
further relevant
sources.
Snowball Method: pros & cons
+
Quick and efficient
search of newest
sources.
Finding sources that
might not be included in
the library catalogues.
-
Can lead to irrelevant
literature (“dead end“).
Can be exclusive – only
one “school of thought“.
CRAAP-Test
Currency (Are the sources timely?)
Relevance (Does the research topic contribute to academic discource?)
Authority (Is the reputation of the authors/publishing institutions credible?)
Accuracy (Is the infornmation in your source reliable and correct?)
Purpose (Why does this source exist, what is its point of view?)
Choosing relevant and appropriate literature
for your RQ: Key tips
- Correct and critical selection
of literature. - Literature must be relevant
to your arguments. - Diverse and primary: books,
essays in anthologies, peerreviewed journal articles
(both print and online)…
-Contemporary: find the
latest essential / most
important literature on a
topic. - Qualitative: evaluate source
quality using the CRAAP-Test - Always start with the current
state of research!
Bibliography
is the list of all sources that have been cited.
* It should be in alphabetical order by author/ editor.
* The items in the list appear at least once in the
footnotes.
* There is only one list of references per essay/ thesis.
* For correct bibliographical entries, make sure to
consult the IMS Citation Guidelines.
