AC2.2 and AC3.2 Describe and Evaluate Individualistic Theories of Criminality

Question 1

Learning theories

Answer 1

Learning theories are based on the assumption that all behaviour is learned.
- Operant conditioning.
- Social learning theory.

Question 2

Operant conditioning

Answer 2

Based on BF Skinner.
If a behaviour results in a reward it will be repeated. If it results in an undesirable outcome it will not.

Question 3

Operant conditioning - What did Skinner call rewards?

Answer 3

Reinforcements.

Question 4

Operant conditioning - Thorndike’s ‘Law of Effect’

Answer 4

Any behaviour that is followed by favourable consequences is likely to happen again.
Any behaviour that is followed by unfavourable consequences is likely to not happen again.

Question 5

Operant conditioning - Differential reinforcement theory (Jeffrey)

Answer 5

Argues that criminal behaviour is learned through the reinforcement of particular behaviours. Crime continues to happen when it has more rewarding consequences than punishing consequences.

Question 6

Operant conditioning - Strengths

Answer 6

• Sinner’s experiment shows that rats can learn a new behaviour.
• Behaviour shaping can be used with humans too e.g. the learning of language.
• Operant conditioning can be applied to criminal behaviour - Jeffrey states that if crime leads to more rewarding than punishing outcomes for the individual, they will be more likely to offend.

Question 7

Operant conditioning - Weaknesses

Answer 7

• Rats aren’t humans, not adequate model of how humans learn criminal behaviour.
• Operant conditioning ignores internal mental processes such as thinking, personal values and attitudes. It explains criminal behaviour purely on the basis of rewards and punishments.
• Humans have free will and can choose their course of action e.g. we can choose to do something that causes us suffering in order to help someone else.

Question 8

Social learning theory
(Vicarious reinforcement)

Answer 8

Researched by Albert Bandura in the 1960s.
Much of our behaviour is learned from observing and imitating others (role model).
We are more likely to copy a behaviour when the role model receives a reward for it. If the role model is punished for the behaviour, it will not be copied.

Question 9

Social learning theory - Role model

Answer 9

The same gender.
The same age or older.
Someone we look up to e.g. parent/celebrity.
Someone of higher status.

Question 10

Social learning theory - Criminal behaviour

Answer 10

• If an individual observes a role model engaging in and being rewarded for criminal behaviour, they are likely to imitate this behaviour.
• If after copying the behaviour, they too are rewarded for it, they are more likely to continue to behave in a criminal way (direct (positive) reinforcement).

Question 11

Social learning theory - Study

Answer 11

Bandura doll studies.
Male and female children aged 3-5 years old observe either an aggressive or a non-aggressive adult model interact with a Bobo doll.
Half saw same-sex role model, half saw opposite sex.
There was very little aggressive behaviour in the non-aggressive model condition, around 70% had a score of zero for aggression. They spent the most time sitting quietly.
The children who observed an aggressive role model showed a lot of verbal and physical aggression of words they heard from the role model.
Evaluation
- Research done in a lab. Same results may not be achieved in a real-life setting. Boyatzis shows at school either Power Rangers or a neutral program, children that watched PRs were more aggressive during break time.
- Conducted experiment on children. We don’t know if adults would behave in a similar way. Phillips found that homicide rates went up in the US following a television boxing match.

Question 12

Social learning theory - Strengths

Answer 12

• Supported by the research done by Bandura.
• Backed up by research done by Boyatzis (in a real life setting) and Phillips (in adults).
• SLT can explain how criminal behaviour starts 9e.g. by imitating a role model) and then continues (direct positive/negative reinforcement).

Question 13

Social learning theory - Weaknesses

Answer 13

• Bandura’s study was done in a lab, different from real life.
• Bobo doll is meant to be hit which could explain the aggression.
• Can’t explain why people that never witnessed a crime commit crimes.
• Not everyone who has witnessed criminal behaviour will copy it.
• In the bobo doll experiment the role models were strangers, in real life role models are family members.

Question 14

Psychodynamic theories

Answer 14

Freud: psychoanalysis.
Bowlby: Maternal deprivation theory.

Question 15

Psychodynamic theory - Freud’s psychoanalysis

Answer 15

• The first 5 years of a child’s development are the most important determinants of adult personality.
• Personality is governed by 3 different personality structures: the Id, Ego and Superego.
• Id: 100% unconscious, demands instant gratification, pleasure principle (gain pleasure, avoid pain, reduce tension), only personality structure present at birth.
• Superego: mostly conscious, (conscience), moral principle (must never do ‘wrong’, guilt).
• Ego: mostly conscious, the ‘executive’, reality principle (balances demands of id, superego and reality).

Question 16

Psychodynamic theory - Freud’s psychoanalysis - Criminal behaviour

Answer 16

• A dominant id.
• A weak superego, developed as a result of abnormal relationships within the family, which causes antisocial behaviour.

Question 17

Psychodynamic theory - Freud’s psychoanalysis - Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory

Answer 17

Bowlby’s 44 thieves.
Children need a stable home environment to move from being id dominated to a point where their ego is in control.
When compared with non-criminal children, the delinquents had a far greater likelihood than the control group of having experienced a separation from their mothers for 6 months or more during the first 5 years of their life.
39% suffered maternal deprivation before the age of 5 compared to 5% of control group of non-delinquents.

Question 18

Psychodynamic theory - Strengths

Answer 18

• Bowlby’s 44 thieves study supports the role of a stable and affectionate home life in the prevention of crime.
• Freud’s theory can explain different types of aggression:
  hot-blooded aggression is impulsive, angry and no purpose other than its satisfaction, domain of the id;
  cold-blooded aggression is deliberate, ‘rational’ and has a purpose.

Question 19

Psychodynamic theory - Weaknesses

Answer 19

• Freud’s concept of id, superego and ego are hypothetical constructs.
• Unscientific and subjective.
• Lack of quantitative data from Freud’s case studies.
• Most psychologists no longer accept Freud’s theories due to the difficulty of testing concepts such as the unconscious mind.

Question 20

Eysenck’s personality theory

Answer 20

Certain personality types are more likely to commit crime because they crave excitement but are slow to learn that crime has bad consequences.
Criminality is the result of a highly neurotic and highly extroverted personality type.

Question 21

Eysenck’s personality theory - Extraversion

Answer 21

Sociable, impulsive and crave excitement and change, become bored easily.
Have a nervous system with a high need for stimulation so constantly seek excitement through rule-breaking and impulsive behaviour.

Question 22

Eysenck’s personality theory - Neuroticism

Answer 22

Unstable and prone to overreacting to stimuli and may be quick to worry, anger or fear. Overly emotional and find difficult to calm down once upset.
Harder to condition into following society’s rules because of high anxiety levels prevent them from learning from punishments.

Question 23

Eysenck’s personality theory - Psychoticism

Answer 23

Cruel, insensitive, aggressive and lack empathy.
Solitary misfits who are more likely to be criminal and may have serious mental illness e.g. schizophrenia.

Question 24

Eysenck’s personality theory - The role of socialisation

Answer 24

Early socialisation where children learn to be law-abiding is important. However, individuals with high PEN traits are less likely to respond to operant conditioning and may struggle to take on board social rules. This makes them more likely to behave antisocially. They will fulfil their own interests whilst violating the norms and rules of society.

Question 25

Eysenck’s personality theory - Strengths

Answer 25

• Suggests that criminal tendencies are detectable since childhood, therefore it’s possible to intervene in an early stage to prevent children from becoming criminals.
• Takes into account both nature and nurture. This interactionist approach may therefore be much valid than either biological or environmental theory alone.
• Rushton and Christjohn (1981) compared P, E and N scores with self reports of delinquency in school children and students. Higher levels of delinquency = high on P, E and N.

Question 26

Eysenck’s personality theory -Weaknesses

Answer 26

• Used self report questionnaires. People may lie when answering questions about themselves (social desirability bias). There is lack of reliability.
• Theory based on convicted offenders. May only tell us about the personality characteristics of unsuccessful offenders.
• Personality not as stable as Eysenck proposed, and can be situation specific. Behaviour may be different in different situations.