ab psych 4 Flashcards
1
Q
What method is used to study human behavior?
A
scientific method
2
Q
Why is abnormal behavior considered challenging to study?
A
Because many aspects of abnormal behavior are inaccessible.
3
Q
Why is understanding research methodology important when dealing with abnormal behavior?
A
important to assess
what findings are factual.
4
Q
What is a hypothesis in a research study?
A
An educated guess.
5
Q
What is the dependent variable (DV) in a research study?
A
The outcome; the measured variable.
6
Q
What is the independent variable (IV) in a research study?
A
The predictor; the manipulated variable.
factors thought to affect the dependent variables
7
Q
What is internal validity?
A
the extent to which you can be confident
that the independent variable is causing the dependent
variable to change.
8
Q
What is external validity?
A
refers to how well the results relate to
things outside your study
The extent to which results apply to people other than the participants of the study and in other settings.
9
Q
What is research design?
A
a research design is the comprehensive plan or blueprint that a researcher creates to conduct a study.
Research design that includes the aspects you want to measure in the people you are studying (the dependent variable) and the influences on these characteristics or
behaviors (the independent variable).
10
Q
What characteristic should hypotheses possess?
A
Testability.
11
Q
What two variables are specified within a hypothesis?
A
Independent Variable (IV) and Dependent Variable (DV).
12
Q
What do psychologists studying abnormal behavior typically measure as a Dependent Variable?
A
An aspect of the disorder in question.
13
Q
What is a confound or confounding variable?
A
any factor occurring
in a study that makes the results uninterpretable because a
variable other than the IV may also affect the DV.
14
Q
What are two strategies to ensure internal validity?
A
1. Use of control groups
2. Randomization
3. Analogue models
15
Q
What is a control group?
A
not exposed to the IV; comparison group
16
Q
What is randomization?
A
the process of assigning people to different research groups
in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being
placed in any group.
17
Q
What does randomization improve?
A
Internal validity; it avoids assignment bias.
18
Q
What are analogue models in research?
A
Creating in the controlled conditions of the laboratory aspects that are comparable (analogous) to the phenomenon under study.
19
Q
What is another term used to describe analogue studies?
A
“Artificial” studies or Simulations.
20
Q
What is the most common type of analogue study?
A
animal study
21
Q
Give an example of an analogue study.
A
A study that examines the role of attention in distracted driving by having college-aged participants perform a computer-tracking task involving skills analogous to those involved in driving.
22
Q
What is the primary goal of internal validity?
A
To control as many things as possible to ensure the Independent Variable (IV) directly causes the Dependent Variable (DV).
23
Q
What is another term for external validity?
A
generalizability
24
Q
What challenge do researchers constantly face regarding validity?
A
Balancing internal and external validity.
25
The introduction of statistics is part of psychology’s evolution
to a ____.
scientific discipline
26
What does statistical significance typically mean?
that the probability of
obtaining the observed effect by chance is small.
27
Define statistical significance.
a mathematical calculation about
the difference between groups
28
Define clinical significance.
Whether or not the difference was meaningful for those affected.
29
What is effect size?
How large the differences between groups are.
30
What does effect size tell you?
How big a difference is relative to the overall variability in the scores.
31
Why is it important to consider effect size in addition to statistical significance?
You may find that, although an
effect is statistically significant, it is small. A small effect may
be meaningful from a theoretical perspective but of little
practical value.
32
What is social validity?
this technique involves obtaining input from the person being treated, as well as from significant others, about the importance of the changes that have occurred.
33
What is the patient uniformity myth?
The tendency to see all participants as one homogeneous group
34
What problem arises from comparing groups according to their mean scores?
hides
important differences in individual reactions to our
interventions
35
What does the patient uniformity myth lead researchers to do?
make inaccurate
generalizations about disorders and their treatments.
36
What is the challenge of client heterogeneity?
whether treatments that are statistically significant will be
effective for a given individual.
37
types of research methods
studying individual cases - case study method
research by correlation
epidemiological research
research by experiment
comparative treatment research
Single-Case Experimental Designs
38
What is the case study method?
intensive investigation of one or more individuals who display behavioral and physical patterns.
39
What is a primary tool used in case studies?
interviews
40
Does the case study method use the scientific method?
no
41
What is a major disadvantage of case studies?
coincidences can occur that affect the conclusion
many confounding variables are present that can interfere
with conclusions
Few efforts are made to ensure internal validity
42
3 Famous people in the field who utilized case study method
Method used by Freud; Masters and Johnson
43
Where does the case study method rely?
relies on a clinician’s observations; collects as much information as possible;
44
What does correlational research answer?
Whether two variables relate to each other.
45
Does correlation imply causation?
no
46
What does a correlation coefficient of 1 indicate?
a perfect correlation
47
What does correlational study include?
Direction and magnitude of the relationship
48
positive correlation vs negative correlation
Positive correlation – linear relationship
negative correlation – inverse relationship
49
issues with correlational study: (2)
Issues: directionality; third variable problem
50
What is the "third variable problem"?
A potential confounding variable that influences both variables in a correlation.
51
What is epidemiology?
- the study of the incidence, distribution, and consequences of a particular problem or set of problems in one or more populations.
52
What are two strategies used in epidemiological research?
Determining prevalence and determining incidence.
53
What is the primary goal of epidemiology?
The primary goal of epidemiology is to determine the extent of
medical problems, it is also useful in the study of psychological
disorders
54
Can epidemiological research determine causation?
no
55
What does an experiment involve?
involves the manipulation of an independent variable and the observation of its effects.
56
What is done in an experiment to answer the question of causality
?
IV is manipulated
57
What is meant by manipulating a variable?
Introducing or withdrawing a variable in a way that would not
have occurred naturally
58
What is a clinical trial?
a special type of group experimental design is used more frequently in treating psychological disorders;
used to determine the effectiveness and safety of a treatment or treatments.
59
The preferred type of clinical trial.
randomized controlled trials
60
What is the ideal relationship between a control group and a treatment group?
they are identical
Researcher – use the same assessments before and after the
independent variable manipulation (for example, a treatment)
to people in both groups.
61
What is the placebo effect?
when behavior changes as a result of a person’s expectation of change rather than as a result of any manipulation by an experimenter; for treatment groups
62
What is the Frustro effect?
people in the control group may be
disappointed that they are not receiving treatment
63
What is a placebo control group?
A control group that receives a placebo to make them believe they are getting treatment
64
Why do researchers use placebo control groups?
researchers use a placebo control group to help distinguish the results of positive expectations from the results of actual treatment
65
What is a double-blind control?
participants in the study “blind,” or
unaware of what group they are in or what treatment they are given (single blind), but so are the researchers or therapists providing treatment (double blind).
66
What is the benefit of a double-blind control?
Eliminates the possibility that an investigator might bias the
outcome.
Eliminate allegiance effect
67
what is the allegiance effect?
The "allegiance effect" in research, particularly in psychotherapy research, refers to the phenomenon where researchers or therapists tend to find results that favor the treatment they personally believe in or are "allegiant" to. In other words, their own biases or preferences can influence the outcome of their studies.
68
What is comparative treatment research?
Giving different treatments to two or more comparable groups of people with a particular disorder and assessing how or whether each treatment helped
E.g. treating one group with medication and treating one group
with cognitive behavioral therapy; results are then compared
69
What are the two main focuses of treatment research?
Process and outcome.
70
What does process research focus on?
The mechanisms responsible for behavior change, or "why does it work?
71
What does outcome research focus on?
focuses on the positive, negative, or both results of the treatment.
72
What do Single-Case Experimental Designs involve?
involves the systematic study of individuals under a variety of
experimental conditions
E.g., Skinner’s experiments
Researchers can and often do use this design with several people at once
73
What is a key feature of Single-Case Experimental Designs?
repeated measurements
74
What is done on a repeated measurement?
a behavior is measured several times instead of only once before you change the IV and once afterward.
75
Why are repeated measurements taken in Single-Case Experimental Designs?
to learn how variable the behavior is (how much does it change from day
to day?) and whether it shows any obvious trends (is it getting better or worse?)
76
One of the more common strategies used in single-subject research
withdrawal designs
77
What is the purpose of a withdrawal design?
To determine whether the Independent Variable (IV) is responsible for changes in behavior
78
What are the three parts of a withdrawal design?
Before treatment (establishing a baseline)
Start of treatment
Treatment is withdrawn
79
What is a disadvantage of withdrawal designs?
are not always appropriate:
ethics issue
unsuitable when the treatment can’t be removed
80
What are drug holidays?
a planned period of time where a patient stops taking prescribed medication.
81
How does a multiple baseline design determine treatment effectiveness?
Rather than stopping the intervention to see whether it is effective, the researcher starts treatment at different times across settings or people
82
What is an advantage of multiple baseline designs?
Improves internal validity - other explanations for results can be ruled out
E.g., Wendy’s anxiety at home and work
83
What are phenotypes?
The observable characteristics or behavior of an individual.
84
What are genotypes?
The unique genetic makeup of individual people.
85
What was the purpose of the human genome project?
mapping of approximately 25,000
human genes; this work identified hundreds of genes that contribute to inherited diseases
86
What are endophenotypes?
the genetic mechanisms that ultimately contribute to the underlying problems causing the symptoms
and difficulties experienced by people with psychological disorders.
87
4 basic approaches used to assess gene-environment influences in psychological disorders
- basic gene epidemiology
- advanced genetic epidemiology
- gene finding
- molecular genetics
88
What is the focus of family studies in genetics?
Examining a behavioral pattern or emotional trait in the context of the family.
89
What is a proband?
The family member with the trait singled out for study.
90
What is the purpose of adoption studies in genetics?
Scientists identify adoptees who have a particular behavioral pattern or psychological disorder and attempt to locate firstdegree relatives who were raised in different family settings
91
What groups are compared in twin studies?
Identical (monozygotic) twins and fraternal (dizygotic) twins.
92
What research question do twin studies aim to answer?
whether identical twins share the same trait more often than fraternal twins
93
What study methods can be combined when studying genetics?
Adoption studies and twin studies.
94
What is the purpose of genetic linkage analysis and association studies?
To locate a defective gene
Family, twin, and adoption studies may suggest that a particular disorder has a genetic component but cannot
provide the location of the implicated gene or genes.
95
How does genetic linkage analysis work?
summary: By studying inherited characteristics with known locations and linking them to the inheritance of a disorder.
When a family disorder is studied, other inherited characteristics are selected because we know their exact location.
If a match or link is discovered between the inheritance of the
disorder and the inheritance of a genetic marker, the genes for the disorder and the genetic marker are probably close together on the same chromosome and are assessed
simultaneously.
96
How do association studies work?
summary: By comparing genetic markers in people with a disorder to those without the disorder.
also uses genetic markers; association studies compare such people to people without the disorder.
If certain markers occur significantly more often in the people with the disorder, it is assumed the markers are close to the genes involved with the disorder.
97
98
Why is understanding the progression of a disorder over time important for treatment?
It helps us decide whether to treat a particular person.
99
What is another important aspect of understanding abnormal behavior over time?
Understanding the developmental changes in abnormal behavior.
100
What are the two types of studies used to examine behavior over time?
Prospective studies and retrospective studies.
101
differentiate prospective studies and retrospective studies.
**Prospective studies:** Follow participants forward in time to see how variables develop.
**Retrospective studies:** Examine past data or events to understand how variables relate to current outcomes.
102
Why do we study clinical problems?
we may be able to design interventions and services to prevent these problems
103
4 broad categories of prevention research
1. Positive development strategies (health promotion
2. Universal prevention strategies
3. Selective prevention strategies
4. Indicated prevention strategies
104
What is the focus of positive development strategies (health promotion)?
blanket approach; keep problems from developing; focus on skill building
105
What do universal prevention strategies target?
Certain specific risk factors in a general population.
106
What is a cross-sectional design?
A research design that collects data at a single point in time.
A variation of correlation research is to compare different people at
different ages.
researchers take a cross-section of a population across different age
groups and compare them on some characteristics.
107
What are cohorts in a cross-sectional study?
The participants in each age group.
108
What is the cohort effect?
variations over time, in one or more characteristics
109
What is a limitation of the cross-sectional design?
The confounding of age and experience.
110
What question is not answered by cross-sectional designs?
How problems develop in individuals.
111
What are disadvantages of longitudinal designs?
Costly and time consuming.
112
What is the cross-generational effect?
involves trying to generalize the findings to groups whose experiences are different from those of the study
participants.
113
What is a sequential design?
combining cross-sectional and longitudinal design; repeated study of different cohorts over time
114
What is a blanket approach, particularly when discussing "positive development strategies (health promotion)?
a blanket approach is a wide-reaching strategy designed to improve the general health and resilience of a population.
- doesn't involve individualized assessments. instead, it's a one-size-fits-all approach.
115
116
What do indicated prevention strategies target?
individuals who are beginning to show signs of problems (for example, depressive symptoms) but do not yet have a psychological disorder.
117
What is an ethnocentric view of psychopathology?
The tendency to view mental disorders primarily through the lens of Western cultural norms and values.
118
What are some cultural factors that complicate research on abnormal behavior?
An additional complicating factor is varying tolerances, or
thresholds, for abnormal behavior.
Treatment research is also complicated by cross- cultural
differences.
119
Why is replication important in research?
It increases confidence that research findings are not due to chance or coincidence.
120
What is "weight of evidence" in research?
The overall strength of support for a claim, based on the accumulation of findings from multiple studies.
121
What are two research designs that may involve withholding treatment?
Withdrawal designs and placebo control groups.
122
What are the four basic components of informed consent?
Competence, voluntarism, full information, and comprehension.
123
Define informed consent.
a research participant’s formal agreement to cooperate in a study following full disclosure of the nature of the research and the participant’s role in it.
124
What is the purpose of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
To review research proposals and ensure they meet ethical guidelines.
125
What is the role of professional bodies like the Psychological Association of the Philippines (PAP) in research ethics?
To provide ethical guidelines for researchers.
126
Why is confidentiality important in research?
To protect participants' privacy and encourage honest participation
127
When is the use of deception in research ethically justifiable?
Only when necessary and followed by thorough debriefing.
128
What is the purpose of debriefing after a research study?
To inform participants of the true nature of the research, especially if deception was used. It addresses any potential harm caused by deception and provides an educational opportunity.
129
What are special ethical considerations for research involving children?
Informed consent from caregivers and assent from children age 7 or older.
130
What is participatory action research?
involvement of consumers in
important aspects of this research
