AAMC Psych/Sosc Flashcards
What is the foot in the door technique?
The foot-in-the-door technique refers to convincing individuals to make a small commitment toward a cause, because this small commitment increases the likelihood of a larger commitment toward the same cause in the future.
What is the self serving bias?
Self-serving bias suggests that when explaining their own behavior, individuals attribute positive behaviors to internal, stable sources, but attribute negative behaviors to external sources. A non-obese individual would attribute his or her healthy weight to an internal, stable source, such as strong willpower. However, a non-obese individual would not attribute his or her healthy weight to an external source, such as not having any fast food restaurants near home.
What is the cognitive dissonance theory?
According to the cognitive dissonance theory, when an individual’s attitudes are incongruent with his or her behavior, this leads to cognitive dissonance. To eliminate cognitive dissonance, the individual can either change his or her attitudes or his or her behavior. The theory posits that individuals are more likely to adjust their attitudes to align with their behavior than the other way around.
What is the actor-observer bias?
refers to a tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external causes while attributing other people’s behaviors to internal causes. It is a type of attributional bias that plays a role in how we perceive and interact with other people. Essentially, people tend to make different attributions depending upon whether they are the actor or the observer in a situation.
What is a reference group?
A reference group is defined as “any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior,” and is similar to the mechanism behind the effect of the “homophilous” group in the study.
What is the difference between independent and dependent variables?
The independent variable is the thing that is being manipulated or changed in the experiment. The dependent variable is the thing that is being measured.
A hot water tail-flick test measures the time it takes rats to remove their tail when it is dipped in hot water. Rats housed with a running wheel exhibit a delayed response in the test. Based on this response, which type of sensory receptors are most likely negatively regulated by exercise?
Exposure to hot water activates pain receptors (nociceptors); a delayed response indicates that nociceptors are negatively regulated.
Explain what operant conditioning is?
Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.
Explain the role of reinforcers in operant conditioning.
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:
Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. For example, if you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus.
Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of the grocery store, but stops once you hand him a treat, you will be more likely to hand him a treat the next time he starts to scream. Your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition (the child screaming), negatively reinforcing your behavior.
Explain the role of punishment in operant conditioning.
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:
Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application. introducing an unpleasant experience rather than removing a pleasant stimulus.
Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child’s video game following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.
What are the different reinforcement schedules possible for operant conditioning?
different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant conditioning process:
Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only after a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady response rate.
Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and start to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the reinforcement has been delivered.
Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and slow extinction rates.
Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.
What is the difference between schemas and scripts?
Schemas are mental frameworks used to categorize novel information and help us to categorize it.
Scripts are a series of behaviours that we learn in order to resoond to a given stimuli. e.g. your friend tells you they got dumped, you go to hug them, say that it will be okay and that women are the devil
Script is more of how someone should act. How someone of a specific gender should act.
Scheme is more of a modeled framework of gender. Not necessarily how one should act but more of what gender is.
Whats the difference between anterograde and retrograde memory?
anterograde memory refers to the ability to form long-term memories after brain injury. Retrograde memory refers to the ability to remember the information before brain injury.
What is Wernicke’s area? What is Broca’s area?
Wernicke’s area is the region of the brain that is important for language development. It is located in the temporal lobe on the left side of the brain and is responsible for the comprehension of speech, while Broca’s area is related to the production of speech.
Broca’s area, or the Broca area, is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the brain with functions linked to speech production.
What is the reticular activating system?
The reticular activating system (RAS) is a network of neurons located in the brain stem that project anteriorly to the hypothalamus to mediate behavior, as well as both posteriorly to the thalamus and directly to the cortex for activation of awake, desynchronized cortical EEG patterns. Mediates overall level of consciousness and alertness
Explain the difference between James Lange Theory? schachter Singer theory? and Cannon Bard Theory?
the James–Lange theory, physiological arousal precedes the identification of emotion. An individual first experiences the physiological symptoms of a given emotion and then labels this emotion.
Schachter–Singer theory
the theory that experiencing and identifying emotional states are functions of both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretations of the physical state. According to the Schachter-Singer theory, emotions are a result of two factors:
Physical processes in the body (such as activation of the sympathetic nervous system, for example), which researchers refer to as “physiological arousal.” These changes can include things like having your heart start beating faster, sweating, or trembling.
A cognitive process, in which people try to interpret this physiological response by looking at their surrounding environment to see what could be causing them to feel this way.
Event leads to cognitive (I’m scared) + arousal (sympathetic response) –>emotion (fear)
Cannon-Bard theory states that we feel emotions and experience physiological reactions such as sweating, trembling, and muscle tension simultaneously.
Anxious about a nagging illness, a patient feels ignored by a doctor who is struggling to catch up with patient examinations on a very busy day. The doctor misinterprets the discomfort and agitation of the patient as hostility. Which sociological paradigm can best explain this scenario?
1) Functionalism
2) Conflict Theory
3) Symbolic Interactionism
4) Social Constructionism
- This is incorrect because functionalism is considered a macro-level theory that understands social phenomena in terms of their function for society.
- This is incorrect because conflict theory focuses on the differences in material resources among groups in society.
- C is the correct answer since the scenario concerns the inter-subjective negotiation of symbols or meanings, which is indicative of symbolic interactionist theory.
- This is incorrect because social constructionism bridges the micro and macro levels but places more emphasis on how concepts emerge (such as illness), as opposed to understanding social interactions.
What is a token economy?
Rewarding individuals with secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for appetitive stimuli is typical of a token economy. A token economy is a system of contingency management based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior. The reinforcers are symbols or tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers.
What is extinction in operant conditioning?
extinction refers to the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing. In other words, the conditioned behavior eventually stops.
What is the difference between the recency effect and the primacy effect?
The recency effect is a memory phenomenon in which people tend to recall the most recent information more accurately. the primacy effect refers to the tendency to recall information presented at the start of a list better than information at the middle or end.
Whats the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?
Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt. When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning – where old memories disrupt new memories.
Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories.
Symbolic interactionism
when people give meaning to symbols and events and interact with others based on their interpretations.
What is cultural universal?
A cultural universal is an element, pattern, or trait that is common to all human cultures worldwide.
Wht is individual discrimination? Past in present discrimination? Side effect discrimination?
Individual discrimination occurs between an individual and another individual or group.
Past-in-present discrimination is the result of direct discrimination against a group that indirectly causes current discrimination against the same group. Side-effect discrimination occurs when decisions of linked institutions create indirect and unintended structural discrimination. The restriction of franchise for felons is a result of side effect discrimination.
What is reciprocal determinism?
reciprocal determinism is a model composed of three factors that influence behavior: the environment, the individual, and the behavior itself. According to this theory, an individual’s behavior influences and is influenced by both the social world and personal characteristics. As an example, Bandura’s reciprocal determinism could occur when a child is acting out in school. The child doesn’t like going to school; therefore, they act out in class. This results in teachers and administrators of the school disliking having the child around.
What is psuedo kinship? Psuedospeciation?
Pseudo-kinship describes social ties that are not true kinship ties, such as by blood or marriage. Pseudospeciation in its extreme form describes attempts to dehumanize other groups.
Semantic vs episodic memory?
Declarative memory is of two types: semantic and episodic. Semantic Memory is recall of general facts and concepts, while Episodic Memory is recall of personal facts, events and experiences. Remembering the capital of France and the rules for playing football uses semantic memory. Remembering what happened in the last game of the World Series uses episodic memory.
Semantic memory is also known as crystallized intelligence the capacity for retrieving this general information is unaffected by aging
Implicit vs explicit memory?s
Sometimes information that unconsciously enters the memory affects thoughts and behavior, even though the event and the memory of the event remain unknown. Such unconscious retention of information is called Implicit Memory.
Example: Tina once visited Hotel California with her parents when she was ten years old. She may not remember ever having been there, but when she makes a trip there later, she knows exactly how to get to the swimming pool.
Explicit Memory is conscious, intentional remembering of information. Remembering a social security number involves explicit memory.
Declarative vs Procedural memory?
Declarative Memory is recall of factual information such as dates, words, faces, events, and concepts. Remembering the capital of France, the rules for playing football, and what happened in the last game of the World Series involves declarative memory. Declarative memory is usually considered to be explicit because it involves conscious, intentional remembering. Type of explicit memory specific to facts and events.
Procedural Memory is recall of how to do things such as swimming or driving a car. Procedural memory is usually considered implicit because people don’t have to consciously remember how to perform actions or skills. This is a type of implicit memory which is just specific to skills and tasks.
Break down the sleep cycle.
BATS Drink Blood
Awake = Beta Waves (you BETA stay awake…)
Getting drowsy (ex: getting drowsy in class) = Alpha-waves
N1 = theta waves (can experience hypnagogic halluncinations + hypnic jerks)
N2 = MORE theta waves (also, K-complexes and Sleep Spindles)
N3/4 = delta waves (deep sleep). Sleep walk + bed- wetting can occur here
REM = beta waves (your brain activity is as if your awake) BUT REM is called paradoxical because although your brain is awake, your movement is paralyzed.
…and then it repeats
Characteristics of sleep stages!
The stages of sleep include three non-rapid eye movement (NREM) stages and one rapid eye movement (REM) stage. The stages proceed in the following order and cycle such that N1 follows REM: N1, N2, N3, REM.
During N1, the individual loses sensation of his or her environment and becomes more relaxed, both mentally and physiologically. Brain waves slowly transition from alpha waves (characteristic of wakefulness) to lower frequency theta waves.
During N2, environmental awareness completely disappears. Brain waves are characterized by sleep spindles and K-complexes, which are short bursts of higher frequency waves. General wave patterns follow theta wave trends, with the exception of these interruptions.
During N3, the individual enters deep sleep. Brain activity is characterized by a high presence of very low frequency delta waves. Parasomnias, such as sleepwalking and night terrors, can occur during stage N3 sleep.
REM sleep is characterized by neural acetylcholine secretions, which cause brain waves to increase in frequency and resemble alpha forms. The body’s muscles are paralyzed, though the brain’s activity is elevated. Dreams occur during this stage, and muscle paralysis is thought to prevent the sleeping individual from attempting to interact with their dreams.
Delta waves are most concretely linked to the N3 stage of sleep.
In what area of the brain is linguistic information processed?
in all but a relatively small number of people, the brain areas that process linguistic information (both production and comprehension) are lateralized in the left hemisphere.
What is Selective attention?
Selective attention is the process of directing our awareness to relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant stimuli in the environment.
This is an important process as there is a limit to how much information can be processed at a given time, and selective attention allows us to tune out insignificant details and focus on what is important.
What is instinctual drift?
instinctual drift is the phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors. So the learned behavior “drifts” to the organism’s species-specific (instinctual) behavior.
What is cultural transmission?
cultural transmission addresses how culture is learned. Culture is passed along from generation to generation through various childrearing practices, including when parents expose children to music. As illustrated by the reminiscence bump, parents’ musical preferences affected their children’s memory of music
What is the proximal stimulus?
the proximal stimulus is the stimulus registered by the sensory receptors (e.g., the pattern of light falling on the retina)
the proximal stimulus refers to physical stimulation that is available to be measured by an observer’s sensory apparatus.
Distal stimulus is the actual object, such as a picture, or tree, person, etc
Proximal stimulus is what the distal stimulus is giving that you can sense–light stimuli, auditory stimuli, etc. it’s the component that must be sensed by your sensory receptors.
Proximal stimulus is the stimulation that actually occurs when your sensory receptors are activated… the neural activity.
Distal stimulus is the actual stimulus or object in the real world that you end up sensing and then perceiving, which results in the proximal stimulus.
