A2 - Biopsychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is Neuroplasticity?
A
The Brain’s ability to change and adapt as a result of experience and new learning
2
Q
What is Functional recovery?
A
The Brain’s ability to redistribute or transfer function to an undamaged area of brain after damage through trauma.
3
Q
At what age do you have the largest amount of neural connections you will ever have in your life?
A
2-3 years old
4
Q
What is Synaptic Pruning?
A
The loss of connections we don’t use in the brain, and the strengthening of those we use regularly
5
Q
What did Maguire et al (2000) discover?
A
London Taxi Drivers have significantly more volume in their posterior hippocampus than controls. This area is associated with navigation.
Cab drivers must pass a test about navigation in order to get a licence, so must learn to navigate London.
Learning affects the structure of the brain.
6
Q
What is a problem with the validity of Maguire’s study?
A
There is no evidence to show that learning routes of London increased grey matter, it may be that people with a larger hippocampus are more likely to become cab drivers
7
Q
What did Draginski (2006) find about student’s brains before and after exams.
A
Medical students had brains scanned 3 months before and after exams. Learning induced changes seen in the posterior hippocampus and the parietal cortex
8
Q
What is spontaneous recovery?
A
The recovery seen in the brain soon after trauma
9
Q
Why might rehabilitation be more important a while after trauma, rather than straight away?
A
The rate of functional recovery slows, the longer after the trauma it has been, so rehabilitation may be needed to help increase recovery.
10
Q
Which study required participants to play Super Mario to test brain plasticity?
A
Kuhn (2014)
11
Q
How often did participants play Super Mario in Kuhn (2014)?
A
30 minutes every day for 2 months
12
Q
What were the results of Kuhn’s 2014 study?
A
Those in the Super Mario group had more grey matter in their cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum
13
Q
What were participants asked to do in Davidson (2004)
A
Participants were asked to meditate, whilst their gamma wave activity was monitored.
14
Q
What were the results of Davidson et al (2004)?
A
Both groups showed greater activation of gamma waves (shown to co-ordinate brain activity) whilst meditating.
The monks showed a far greater increase in gamma wave activation in the Tibetan monks than the students.
15
Q
What can be concluded from Davidson et al (2004)?
A
Meditation not only makes short term changes in the working of the brain, but may also produce more permanent changes to the brain. Particularly as the Tibetan monks had far more gamma wave activity than the control group even BEFORE the meditation
16
Q
Name 2 mechanisms for functional recovery after trauma.
A
Neuronal Unmasking
Stem Cells
17
Q
What is a “dormant synapse”?
A
A synapse which is not in use when a person is in good health, but can act as a cover for those lost or damaged as a result of trauma.
18
Q
Which method of Functional Recovery uses Dormant Synapses?
A
Neuronal Unmasking
19
Q
What are the two further features of Neuronal Unmasking?
A
Axon Sprouting
Recruitment of Homologous areasin the opposite hemisphere
20
Q
What is Axon Sprouting?
A
An Axon is an ‘arm’ of a nerve cell, axon sprouting is where new axons develop to connect to undamaged areas of the brain.
21
Q
What is Recruitment of Homologous areas?
A
This is where functions that were previously managed by one hemisphere of the brain, are shifted to areas on the other half of the brain that are structurally similar.
22
Q
What are the three ‘uses’ of stem cells in functional recovery?
A
Direct Implants
Rescue Implants
Neural Networks
23
Q
What does a direct implant of stem cells do?
A
They replace the damaged cells
24
Q
What do Rescue Implant Stem Cells do?
A
They release growth hormones to ‘repair’ the damaged cells
25
What do 'Neural Network' stem cells do?
These stem cells form a network linking the damaged cells to undamaged cells to crate functional recovery
26
List some common types of Brain Trauma (4 types)
Physical Trauma, eg blows and missile wounds to the skull and brain
Cerebral Haemorrhage, when a blood vessel in the brain bursts
Cerebral Ischaemia, when a blood vessel is blocked either by a blood clot or fatty deposits
Viral or Bacterial Infections, these can destroy brain tissue, eg Meningitis
27
Why might there often be significant recovery from brain trauma in the first days or weeks of recovery?
Besides damaging neurons, Brain trauma can lead to swelling of brain tissue, which can affect behaviour. This swelling dies down within days and weeks and is responsible for the fast spurt of recovery.
28
What can growth of new neurons be known as?
Neurogenesis
29
How might a patient show recovery, without any functional recovery in the brain?
Behaviour changes to compensate for the damage, such as writing things down to combat amnesia.
30
What are 3 possible treatments for brain trauma?
Drugs, utilising nerve growth factor (NGF)
Neuronal transplantation, a promising line of research in implanting stem cells to damaged areas
Rehabilitation and brain reorganisation. We already know that practicing skills alters brain organisation, therapies that involve practicing a skill affected by brain damage might lead to recovery.
All possible treatments,only rehabilitation actually in use.
31
Where is Wernicke's area in the brain?
The left temporal lobe
32
Where is Broca's area of the Brain?
The left frontal lobe
33
Where is the motor cortex?
The back of the frontal lobe
34
Where is the somatosensory cortex
The front of the parietal lobe
35
How are the parts of the somatosensory and motor cortex organised?
In the same logic as the body, the area of the motor cortex for the left foot is found next to the area for the left toes
36
Where is the visual area found in the brain?
n the occipital lobe
37
What theory contradicts the localisation of function theory, and existed before?
The holistic theory, that all parts of the brain were used for thought and action
38
What side of the body does the right motor cortex control?
The left.
39
What side of the brain are the Language centres found?
The left
40
What was the name given to Broca's patient in his famous study?
Tan, as all he could say was 'tan'
41
If you have Broca's Aphasia, what can you NOT do?
Produce speech
42
Name three strengths of the localisation of function theory (evidence that supports it)
Support from aphasia cases
Support from brain scanning techniques
Support from case studies
43
What is a problem with using case studies to support localisation of function theory?
Case studies have very low population validity, it may be that differences are simply due to individual differences
44
Why does Paulesu's memory study (from AS) support localisation of function?
The study shows that different parts of the brain are used for different functions of memory
45
What theory of the brain does the case study of Phineas Gage (the man with the pole through his head) support?
Localisation of function, as the pole destroyed his temporal lobe and his mood was changed
46
Why does Neuroplasticity go against localisation of function
If people can recover function despite damage to specific areas to the brain, other areas of the brain must be able to control the functions previously controlled by the damaged areas.
47
What is equipotentiality?
The view that motor and sensory functions are localised, but higher thoughts, like cognitive reasoning and empathy are not
48
Explain an argument against localisation, other than equipotentiality.
Communication, rather than localisation. Connections between areas of the brain are more important than the areas themselves
49
Give an example of communication being more important than localisation of brain function
French Neurologist Dejerine had a case study who's Wernicke's area and visual cortex were in tact, but the connection was damaged, so they couldn't read
50
Explain the problem of individual differences in localisation of function.
There are individual differences between each person's brain, meaning it's hard to make a universal theory
51
What did Harasty find about gender differences in function localisation?
Men and women, have different sized Broca's area, women's are bigger on average.
52
When can the idea of hemispheric lateralisation be traced back to?
The early 1800s, research by Marc Dax
53
What does the term lateralisation refer to?
The fact that the two hemispheres are not exactly identical, and each hemisphere has functional specialisms
54
Which side of the brain is associated with language functions?
The Left
55
Which side of the brain has been found to excel at visual-motor tasks?
The Right
56
Which side of the brain controls the left side of the body
The right
57
Which side of the brain controls the right side of the body?
The left
58
Which side of the brain is responsible for face recognition?
The right
59
What tissues connect the two hemispheres of the brain?
A bundle of nerve fibres called the Corpus Collosum
60
What treatment has been used to treat severe epilepsy?
Surgery to sever the Corpus Collosum
61
What are patients who underwent the severing of the Corpus Collosum referred to as?
"Split-Brain Patients"
62
Who were the first people to study the capabilities of Split Brain Patients?
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
63
If an image is presented to the left visual field, what would the split brain patient say they had seen?
Nothing
64
If an image of a cat was presented to the left visual field, and a dog to the right, what would the split brain patients say they had seen?
A dog, they would process the dog through the language centre but not the cat
65
What were the split brain patients asked to do at the start of Sperry and Gazzaniga's experiments?
They had to sit in front of a screen, and focus on a cross in the centre, whilst images flash up on either side of the cross
66
If an image of a key appeared on the right visual field, and a ring on the left, which object would the patients choose from, by feel?
The ring, as that image was processed by the right hemisphere
67
What are the advantages of hemispheric lateralisation?
It is theorised it increases neural processing capacity, but there is little empirical evidence to support this
68
What does Gazzaniga (1998) suggest about some early split brain discoveries
That they have been disconfirmed by more recent research, such as case studies that show patients with the ability to speak out of the right hemisphere
69
What are the limitations of split brain research?
Its a rare procedure so research has low population validity
Its only done on people who already are diagnosed with a brain disorder, and the procedure is not always completely successful
70
How long does a circadian rhythm last?
Around a day, 24 hours
71
What does circadian mean?
| Once every 24 hours
Once every 24 hours
72
Name three circadian rhythms
The Sleep-Wake Cycle
Core Body Temperature
Hormone Production
73
What mechanism in the Hypothalamus is key to circadian rhythms?
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
74
Can the SCN run independently of the environment?
Yes, but it requires external cues to remain synchronised to the rest of the world
75
What is an Endogenous Pacemaker?
Mechanisms within the body that govern the internal biological rhythms
76
What is an Exogenous Zeitgeber?
an environmental cue, such as light, that helps to regulate the biological clock in an organism
77
Which key study involved sleeping in a cave with only artificial lighting for months on end?
Michael Siffre's Case Study (1962, stayed in a cave in the alps for 61 days)
78
What were the results of Michael Siffre's case studies
He found that his natural rhythm settled to somewhere around 24 hours, but with some dramatic variations
79
Identify 2 flaws with Siffre's studies
1. Only one man - poor population validity
| Used artificial light, further studies suggest this can affect circadian rhythms, so poor internal validity
80
Why might Siffre's use of artificial light in his study make the results invalid?
Some studies, such as Czeisler et al, found that it was possible to adjust someone's circadian rhythm from 22 to 28 hours, using dim lighting. This means the artificial light in Siffre's study might have adjusted his circadian rhythm, rending the results invalid.
81
What real life applications could research on circadian rhythms have?
Practical applications to shift work. A better understanding of the adverse effects of night shifts. economic implications in terms of employee productivity
82
What is a problem with using case studies as evidence for the sleep/wake cycle?
Very low population validity, does not take into account individual differences, so limited generalisation
83
Very low population validity, does not take into account individual differences, so limited generalisation
Body temperature
| Hormone Production
84
Briefly outline the circadian rhythm of body temperature
At its lowest (36 degrees) around 4:30 am
At its highest (38 degrees) at 6pm
Body temp will lower as preparing to sleep, and rise before 4.30 to wake you. Dip in temperature between 2-4pm, hence tiredness after lunchtime
85
Briefly describe the circadian rhythm of hormone production
Melatonin makes you feel sleepy.
Increases before bed time, and production is inhibited by light, so decreases as the day progresses and there is more light.
Cortisol increases alertness.
This reaches peak around 6am, ready to wake up, and is lowest around midnight, readying for sleep.
86
What did Duffy et al (2001) find about individual differences in circadian rhythms?
Different people's rhythms reach their onsets at different times. Eg "morning people" prefer to rise early and go to bed early (6am-10pm)
87
What did Czeisler et al (1999) find out about individual differences in circadian rhythms?
He found that rhythms can vary between 13 hours and 65 hours in different people
88
What did Buhr et al find out about the effect of temperature on circadian rhythms?
That temperature has a larger impact over whether or not your organs and tissues in your body are active or inactive, therefore providing more control over circadian rhythms
89
What did Hughes (1977) find about cortisol?
Researchers stationed at the British Antarctic station for 3 months of darkness, had shifted cortisol rhythms, the highest point being at noon rather than as they woke
However, the cortisol production of those native to the area were unchanged
90
Give an example of an endogenous pacemaker
The Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
91
What is the SCN?
The primary pacemaker in the brain, located in the hypothalamus. It has its own internal time management system based on a complex cellular process.
It can be reset by the use or absense of light
92
How does light affect the SCN?
A third type of light receptor in the retina detects the brightness of the light, which affects the SCN
93
Name 2 exogenous zeitgebers
Light
| Social Cues
94
What did Klein and Wegmann (1974) find out about the effects of jet lag?
They were less in the people who went outside more when they reached their destination, a they were exposed to more light and reset their SCN
95
What did DeCoursey's experiment with chipmunks entail?
She removed the SCN from the chipmunks and released them back into the wild
96
What were the results of DeCoursey's chipmunk experiment?
Most of the chipmunks had died after a month, having been attacked by weasels. It was theorised that this was because the chipmunks were not sleeping, o were active at the wrong times, and overly tired
97
What is a post mortem examination?
The examination of the brain of a deceased individual
98
Why might researchers decide to do a postmortem examination on an individual who showed abnormal behaviour?
They may examine the brain to look for any abnormalities that might explain the patient's behaviour when alive, possibly correlate certain areas of the brain to certain functions
99
What does an Electroencephalogram (EEG) measure?
An EEG measures electrical activity in the brain
100
How does an EEG work?
Electrodes are placed on the scalp, which detect small electrical charges from the activity in the brain cells. These signals are graphed over time, creating an EEG reading.
101
What can an EEG be used for?
Detecting brain disorders such as epilepsy or Alzheimer's disease. They can also be used to look at sleep and sleep disorders, as different stages of sleep give out types of wave
102
What are the four basic patterns of brain waves?
```
Alpha waves (when a person is awake)
Beta waves (when physiologically aroused)
Delta and theta waves (found in sleep)
```
103
What does fMRI stand for?
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
104
What does an fMRI measure?
Changes in blood flow to a particular area of the brain, which indicates increased neural activity in those areas
105
Does an fMRI scan rely on a radioactive tracer?
No
106
What is an ERP a derivative of?
An EEG
107
Why might EEG data not be able to give a clear correlation?
All brain waves are recorded, not just those in response to a stimulus
108
How does an ERP filter out unwanted data from an EEG?
The procedure uses a statistical averaging technique to remove extraneous variables, leaving only event related potentials
109
What are the pros of a post mortem examination as a way of looking at the brain?
It was the only option in early psychology, before the development of brain scanning techniques etc
110
What are the pros of EEGs?
They can detect activity in under one millisecond, so have a high temporal resolution
111
What are the problems with EEGs?
They're only a general measure, the electrical activity from one neuron firing will not trigger the EEG
112
What are the positives of using an fMRI?
Unlike other scans such as PET scans, it doesn't rely on the use of a radioactive tracer
113
What are the pros of using an ERP to measure brain activity?
Its more specific than an EEG
| Its derived from an EEG so has high temporal resolution
114
What are the problems with using ERPs?
The procedure has not been standardised, so its difficult to compare findings from different subjects using this technique
115
What is an Infradian Rhythm?
A biological Rhythm that lasts longer that lasts longer than 24 hours
116
Give two examples of infradian rhythms
The Menstrual Cycle
Seasonal Affective Disorder
117
Which Hormones are involved in the in the menstrual cycle?
Oestrogen and Progesterone
118
Which hormone causes the ovary to develop an egg and release it (ovulation)?
Oestrogen
119
Which Hormone is involved after ovulation, to help the womb lining grow thicker and ready the body for pregnancy
Progesterone
120
Which study showed that women's cycles would synchronise with other women's cycles?
Russell (1980)
121
What was the method of Russell's 1980 study?
They presented the swear of one woman onto the upper lip of another woman, who they were not living with, to see if the pheromones from the sweat influenced the menstrual cycle
122
What is the "McClintock Effect"?
The 'alleged' process where women who live together begin to have synchronised menstrual cycles
123
What doe the results of Russell's study suggest about the menstrual cycle.
The women appeared to shift their cycle, along the timeline of the woman who's pheromones they were presented. This suggests the menstrual cycle is affected by exogenous zeitgebers
124
What is a major issue with research into menstrual sequence synchronisation?
As different women have different length menstrual cycles, they can often synchronise over a short period of time anyway, regardless of pheromones.
125
What further research suggests the menstrual cycle is an in-built Infradian rhythm?
Penton Voak found that women who were ovulating preferred more masculine faces, and when they were less fertile they preferred more feminine faces.
Masculine faces suggest virility and good genes, feminine faces suggest kindness and co-operation, so masculine faces are better at a time for mating, etc
Suggests that there are rhythms running alongside the menstrual cycle
126
Briefly outline Seasonal Affective Disorder
A mood disorder, that is linked to the seasons.
Leads to feelings of sadness or hopelessness
127
What is the most common treatment for SAD?
Exposing the patient to a light box, that simulates natural light, for as little as 10 minutes a day
128
What hormones are released by the Pituitary gland in the Menstrual Cycle
LH and FSH
129
Name an Ultradian Rhythm
Sleep Cycle
Basic Rest Activity Cycle
130
Which stage of sleep is associated with dreaming?
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep
131
What exogenous zeitgeber is known to affect the sleep wake cycle?
Sunlight
132
What is BRAC?
Basic Rest Activity Cycle
133
How long is the Basic Rest Activity Cycle?
90 minutes, characterised by periods of alertness, followed by a spell of physiological fatigue
134
What study found that prodigious violinists tended to practice in sessions across the day, lasting around 90 minutes, and no more than around 3 a day?
Ericcson et al (1993)
135
How many sleep stages are there?
5
136
When in the sleep stages does the brain produce delta waves?
Stages 3 and 4
137
What are the stages where you are not dreaming called?
NREM sleep
138
Who created the theory of the Basic Rest Activity Cycle?
Kleitman (1969)
139
How often does the sleep cycle repeat itself?
Every 90-100 minutes
140
Define Ultradian Rhythm
A biological rhythm that cycles in a period shorter than 24 hours
