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Block 4 - Psych > A+P - Psych > Flashcards

A+P - Psych Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the resting membrane potential?

A

-70mV

(The potential inside the neuron is 70 mV l< the potential outside the neuron.)

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2
Q

What two ions cause an action potential to occur?

A

Na+ & K+

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3
Q

Which ion is in higher concentration outside the cell?

A

Na+

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4
Q

Which ion is in higher concentration inside the cell?

A

K+

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5
Q

Na+ wants to flow…

A

into the neuron (cell)

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6
Q

K+ wants to flow…

A

out of the neuron (cell)

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7
Q

Describe the concentration gradient.

A

Particles want to move from high to low concentration

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8
Q

The (-) polarity (-70mV) inside the neuron attracts…

A

Na+ & K+

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9
Q

Describe electrostatic pressure/gradient.

A
  • opposites [in charge] attract
  • like charges repel
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10
Q

What is the role of ion channels?

A

to allow specific ions to cross the membrane

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11
Q

Role of Na-K pumps

A

ushers out Na+ at a higher rate than K+ when the neuron is at rest

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12
Q

NOTE

A
  • K+ is actively pumped in
  • Na+ is actively pumped out (after leaking in across membrane)
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13
Q

How much Na+ is pump across the membrane?

A

3

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14
Q

How much K+ is pumped across the membrane?

A

2

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15
Q

What are the 2 kinds of postsynaptic potentials?

A
  • excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)
  • inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)
  • both are graded potentials meaning the size of the potential incr w/ the amount of stimulation
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16
Q

Describe excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)

A

they depolarize the cell

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17
Q

Describe inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

A

hyperpolarize the cell

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18
Q

What does hyperpolarization cause?

A

makes it more difficult to have firing of the neuron; require more stimulation

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19
Q

What does PSPs mean?

A

Postsynaptic Potentials

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20
Q

What are the 2 methods of causing multiple postsynaptic potentials?

A
  1. Spatial Summation
  2. Temporal Summation
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21
Q

When does spatial summation occur?

A

when there is simultaneous stimulation at different parts of the neuron

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22
Q

Spatial summation NOTE

A

Can be a combo of multiple EPSPs, multiple IPSPs, or a mix of both

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23
Q

What are the 3 possibilities of spatial summation?

A
  • 2 simultaneous EPSPs sum to produce a greater EPSP
  • 2 simultaneous IPSPs sum to produce a greater IPSP
  • a simultaneous IPSP & EPSP cancel each other out
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24
Q

When does temporal summation occur?

A

when 2 PSPs happen rapidly in succession at the same synapse to form a greater signal
–> meaning a single neuron - 2 signals

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25
Q

Is temporal summation inhibitory, excitatory or both?

A

Either 2+ inhibitory OR 2+excitatory

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26
Q

What happens when the membrane reaches threshold of excitation?

A

voltage-activated ion channels are opened
- Na+ > K+

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27
Q

What happens after an action potential occurs?

A

a refractory period

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28
Q

What are the 2 types of refractory periods?

A
  • absolute
  • relative
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29
Q

Is it possible for another AP to occur during the absolute refractory period?

A

impossible to initiate another action potential

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30
Q

Is it possible for another AP to occur during the relative refractory period?

A
  • it’s harder to initiate another AP (must apply higher than normal levels of stimulation to create another AP)
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31
Q

What is the consequence of the refractory period?

A

neural firing rate is related to stimulus intensity.

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32
Q

When does high intensity stimulus occur?

A

immediately after absolute refractory period

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33
Q

When does low intensity stimulus occur?

A

after absolute AND relative refractory periods

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34
Q

Where does saltatory conduction occur?

A

in myelinated neurons

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35
Q

Describe saltatory conduction.

A

APs travel the node of Ranvier which allows for quicker conduction down the neuron

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36
Q

What drives the process of exocytosis?

A

opening of Ca+ channels

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37
Q

What does exocytosis lead to?

A

the release of neurotransmitter into the synapse

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38
Q

What are the two categories of neurotransmitters?

A
  • small-molecule
  • large- molecule
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39
Q

How are small-molecule neurotransmitters transported?

A

Packaged into vesicles by the Golgi complex

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40
Q

How are large-molecule neurotransmitters transported?

A

Carried down to the terminal buttons by microtubules

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41
Q

Describe coexistence

A

A single terminal button can contain both small- & large-molecule neurotransmitters

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42
Q

What is a receptor?

A

a PRO w/ a binding site for specific neurotransmitters

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43
Q

What is a ligand?

A

any molecule that binds to another

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44
Q

Describe an ionotropic receptor?

A

pass neurotransmitter through ligand-gated ion channels (faster transmission, shorter-lasting effects)

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45
Q

Is a neurotransmitter a ligand?

A

YES

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46
Q

What are the 2 categories of postsynaptic receptors?

A
  • ionotropic
  • metabotropic
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47
Q

Describe an metabotropic receptor?

A

neurotransmitter binds to a signal PRO, which then releases its G- protein, which finally opens a path for the ions to enter (slower transmission, longer-lasting effects)

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48
Q

What 2 mechanisms prevent the collection/build up of neurotransmitter in the synapse?

A
  • reuptake
  • enzymatic degradation
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49
Q

Describe reuptake.

A

neurotransmitter drawn back into presynaptic buttons by transporter mechanisms

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50
Q

Describe enzymatic degradation

A

neurotransmitter degraded (broken apart) in the synapse by enzymes

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51
Q

Which neurotransmitters most often acts directly on neighboring neurons?

A

small-molecule neurotransmitters

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52
Q

Which neurotransmitters acts indirectly on synaptic activity?

A

Neuropeptides (large-molecule
neurotransmitters)

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53
Q

Describe endorphins

A

Large-molecule neurotransmitter or neuromodulator in the PNS/CNS & hormone in the pituitary

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54
Q

When are endorphins released?

A

in times of pain/stress & is inhibitory (“pain relief”) – stronger than morphine

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55
Q

What do endorphins bind to? causing?

A
  • opioid receptors
  • prevents release of substance P
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56
Q

What is beta-endorphin?

A

an endogenous opioid
- one of the neurochemicals involved w/ exercise-induced euphoria (runner’s high)

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57
Q

Endorphins are associated w/

A

states of pleasure, including such emotions brought upon by laughter, love, sex & even appetizing food

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58
Q

Dopamine plays a big role in…

A

addiction

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59
Q

Dopamine is a ___ molecule neurotransmitter, but can also act as a ___.

A
  • small
  • hormone
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60
Q

Dopamine is considered a…

A

neurohormone

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61
Q

Dopamine is mainly known for…

A

sense of pleasure/motivation it provides, but not known to have many other roles

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62
Q

Dopamine plays a role in which key things in the body?

A
  • learning & attention
  • mood regulation
  • heart & kidney function
  • pain processing
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63
Q

Imbalances in dopamine are linked to

A
  • addiction
  • Parkinson’s disease
  • various mental health concerns
  • pain pleasure motivation
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64
Q

Is glutamate (GLU) excitatory or inhibitory the brain?

A

excitatory

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65
Q

What is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter across the whole nervous system (brain)?

A

glutamate (GLU)

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66
Q

Glutamate is important for…

A

learning, memory, and other various cognitive functions

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67
Q

What results in neural cell death?

A

overproduction of endogenous (but not dietary) glutamate

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68
Q

Imbalances in glutamate (GLU) is linked to…

A
  • ALZ Dz
  • Parkinson’s Dz
  • brain injury
  • stroke
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69
Q

Describe serotonin.

A

inhibitory neurotransmitter
- also a neurohormone

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70
Q

Serotonin (5-HT) function

A

helps regulate many key biological functions related to survival
–> sleep, mood, libido, anxiety, pain, appetite

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71
Q

Imbalances in serotonin causes

A

(typically deficiencies)
disorders w/ Sx of anxiety, depression, &/or chronic pain

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72
Q

Describe norepinephrine (NE).

A

functions more as a neurotransmitter vs a neurohormone

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73
Q

NE also contributes to…

A

mood, memory, & ability to focus

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74
Q

NE aka

A

noradrenaline

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75
Q

NE is primarily known for its contributions to the ___ response.

A

fight-or-flight

76
Q

NE works on which system for fight-or-flight?

A

sympathetic nervous system

77
Q

Imbalances in NE are linked to…

A
  • PTSD
  • Parkinson’s Dz
  • ADHD
78
Q

Describe Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

A

inhibitory neurotransmitter

79
Q

What is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain?

A

GABA

80
Q

What effect does GABA have on the brain?

A

produces a calming effect
- reduces in stress, fear, & anxiety
- helps one fall & stay asleep

81
Q

Imbalances in GABA is linked to…

A
  • schizophrenia
  • ASD
  • anxiety disorders
  • depression
  • seizures
  • hypersomnia
82
Q

Chart: Adrenaline

A
  • fight or flight neurotransmitter
  • stressful or exciting situations
  • incr HR & blood flow
83
Q

Chart: Noradrenaline

A
  • Concentration neurotransmitter
  • attention & responding actions also fight-or-flight
  • contracts BVs & incr blood flow
84
Q

Chart: Dopamine

A
  • pleasure neurotransmitter
  • pleasure, addiction, movement & motivation
85
Q

Chart: Serotonin

A
  • mood neurotransmitter
  • well-being, happiness, sleep cycle, digestive regulation
  • affected by exercise & light exposure
86
Q

Chart: GABA

A
  • calming neurotransmitter
  • calms firing of nerves, high levels improve focus, low levels cause anxiety
  • motor control & vision
87
Q

Chart: Acetylcholine

A
  • learning neurotransmitter
  • thought, learning, memory
  • activates muscles, attention & awakening
88
Q

Chart: Glutamate

A
  • memory neurotransmitter
  • most common brain neurotransmitter
  • involved in learning & memory, regulates development & nerve contracts
89
Q

Chart: Endorphins

A
  • euphoria neurotransmitter
    -released during exercise, excitement & sex
  • well-being & euphoria
  • reduce pain
90
Q

For psychpactive drugs to produce effects, what must they do?

A

enter the brain

91
Q

What must psychoactive drugs cross to enter the brain?

A

blood-brain-barrier

92
Q

The BBB acts as a…

A

filter that makes it difficult for chemicals to pass from the BVs of the CNS into its neurons

93
Q

Effects can partially depend on ___. The route of administration influences the ___ that the drug reaches the site of action.

A
  • drug administration
  • rate/degree
94
Q

ROA: Describe Oral ingestion

A
  • Absorbed through intestines into bloodstream
  • Relatively easy/safe
  • Effects are relatively slow
  • Unpredictable (absorption varies w/ what is in stomach)
95
Q

ROA: Describe Injection

A
  • Effects are strong, fast, predictable
    Three types:
  • Subcutaneous (just below skin)
  • IM (into large muscles)
  • IV (directly into veins/bloodstream)
96
Q

ROA: Describe Inhalation

A
  • Absorbed into the bloodstream through capillaries in the lungs
  • Difficult to regulate dose
97
Q

ROA: Describe Mucous Membrane Absorption

A
  • Mucous membranes can absorb drugs very quickly
  • Can be administered through any mucous membrane, w/ a very commonly-used one being inside the nose
    (i.e., snorting)
98
Q

Once inside the brain, how do the drugs take their effect? (2)

A

Agonist or Antagonist

99
Q

What is an agonist?

A

Molecule that incr a neurotransmitter’s action

100
Q

What is an antagonist?

A

Molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

101
Q

The actions of most drugs are terminated by enzymes in the liver, which is called…

A

drug metabolism

102
Q

How small amounts of the unmetabolized drugs eliminated?

A
  • urine
  • sweat
  • feces
  • breath
  • breastmilk, etc
103
Q

Describe Cytochrome P450 (CYP)

A

a hemePRO that has a key role in metabolism of drugs

104
Q

What is considered a major mediator of drug-drug interactions?

A

Cytochrome P450 (CYP)

105
Q

NOTES

A

Genetics or polymorphisms can causes CYP changes causing more/less metabolism of drugs

106
Q

Define drug tolerance

A

a state of decr sensitivity to a drug’s effect that results from prior exposure to that drug

107
Q

List the 2 key ways drug tolerance an be measured.

A
  1. How much one’s response decr when the same amount of the drug is administered
  2. How much more of the drug needs to be administered to produce the same degree of effect
108
Q

What are the 2 types of tolerance?

A
  1. metabolic tolerance
  2. Functional tolerance
109
Q

Define metabolic tolerance

A

results from a decr in the amount of drug that is able to reach the target cells

110
Q

Describe functional tolerance

A

results from a decr in the ability of the drug to influence the target cells

111
Q

How is functional tolerance similar to DM?

A

down regulation of receptors

  • now it takes more drugs to get high
112
Q

When is tolerance greatest?

A

when administration is in same situation as previous administrations.

113
Q

Define drug withdrawal syndrome.

A

an illness that is triggered by sudden elimination of a drug that has perpetually been in the body in significant amounts.

114
Q

NOTE

A

Exposure produces compensatory NS changes to offset drug’s effects

Elimination sees these compensatory changes (w/o the drug present) manifested as withdrawals

115
Q

Describe physical dependence

A

When someone suffers from withdrawal Sx if they stop taking a drug

116
Q

Is physical dependence a psycho condition?

A

NO

117
Q

NOTE

A

Everyone who is dependent has developed a tolerance, but not everyone w/ a tolerance is dependent.

118
Q

List the depressants

A

alcohol

119
Q

List the hallucinogens

A
  • LSD
  • Marijuana
120
Q

List the stimulants

A
  • Caffeine
  • Tobacco
  • Cocaine
  • Amphetamines
121
Q

What do depressants do?

A

reduce “depress” CNS activity

122
Q

How do low doses of depressants work?

A

Tend to leave you feeling more relaxed & facilitate social interaction by slightly reducing inhibitions

123
Q

How do mod-high doses of depressants work?

A
  • Induced sleep
  • Cognitive & perceptual impairments
  • Excessive muscle relaxation (resulting in slurred speech, poor motor coordination, etc.)
  • Lightheadedness/dizziness
  • Slowed breathing
124
Q

What is one of the most common depressant drugs used today?

A

alcohol

125
Q

How does alcohol affect GABA?

A

agonist

126
Q

How does alcohol affect ACh, 5-HT & GLU?

A

antagonist

127
Q

NOTE about alcohol

A
  • Passes directly into BS via digestive tract (can have quick effects)
  • Can alter neural activity in numerous ways, including by binding directly to receptors for ACh, 5-HT, GLU &GABA
128
Q

Withdrawal syndrome ranges from…

A

from a hangover (i.e. HA & nausea) to delirium tremens (i.e., severe tremors, shivering, irregular HR, hallucinations)

129
Q

Alcohol can cross placenta, potentially resulting

A

fetal alcohol syndrome

130
Q

What are hallucinogens?

A

drugs that alter one’s awareness of reality and/or their own thoughts & feelings.

131
Q

Common examples of hallucinogens

A
  • LSD (aka acid)
  • MDMA (ecstasy/molly)
  • Psilocybin (magic mushrooms)
  • Peyote
  • Ketamine
  • Marijuana
132
Q

LSD main Sx

A

hallucinations (“trips”)
- incorporate real & imagine stimuli

133
Q

What does LSD bind to?

A

5-HT receptors, acting as an antagonist for some & an agonist for others

134
Q

What is marijuana made from?

A

dried leaves & flowers of cannabis plant

135
Q

How is marijuana ingested?

A

inhaled or oral

136
Q

What is the psychoactive ingredient in marijuana?

A

THC

137
Q

Describe addition & withdrawal w/ marijuana

A
  • low potential for addiction
  • withdrawal is rare
138
Q

What other categories does marijuana fall into & describe action?

A

depressant
- due to lowering certain kinds or neural activity
stimulant
- due to incr other kinds of neural activity

139
Q

Social doses of marijuana can cause…

A
  • Incr sense of well-being
  • craving sweets
  • enhanced sensations
  • delayed rxn time
  • incr thirst/appetite
140
Q

Higher doses of marijuana can cause…

A
  • Impaired judgment
  • paranoia
  • short-term memory impairment
  • possibility of hallucinations (rare)
141
Q

THC mimics?

A

anandamide

142
Q

Describe anandamide.

A

an endogenous substance that helps slow movement/incr sense of calm & remove unnecessary short-term
memories

143
Q

Which breaks down quicker, THC or anandamide?

A

anandamide

144
Q

Psychoactive drugs that generally yield an effect due to an incr of CNS activity are known as…

A

stimulants

145
Q

What is the main sx of stimulants?

A

speeding up both physical & mental bodily processes

146
Q

Common examples of stimulants.

A
  • Caffeine
  • Tobacco (nicotine)
  • Cocaine
  • Amphetamines (including ecstasy & meth)
  • “Bath salts” (a wide mix of specific stimulant street drugs)
147
Q

Caffeine give a feeling of “wakefulness” due to…

A

caffeine binding to adenosine receptors

148
Q

What is adenosine?

A

an endogenous chemical that accumulates throughout the day & leads us to feel more tired the more it binds to neural receptors.

149
Q

How are caffeine & adenosine related?

A

Caffeine mimics adenosine & binds to those same receptors, blocking adenosine from having those effects.

150
Q

What is the psychoactive ingredient in tobacco?

A

nicotine

151
Q

Nicotine acts as…

A

an agonist for certain ACh receptors

152
Q

NOTE

A
  • Nicotine is highly addictive
  • can also incr NE activity & sympathetic nervous system activity (linked to elevated arousal/stimulation)
153
Q

Continued use of nicotine can lead to…

A

desensitized ACh receptors, where more of the drug is needed to produce the same effect

154
Q

Teratogenic effects of nicotine

A

Incr likelihood of miscarriage, stillbirth & early death of child

155
Q

Describe cocaine/crack.

A

a stimulant made from coca shrub.

156
Q

Describe how cocaine/crack works.

A
  • Acts by blocking reuptake of numerous neurotransmitters, including DA, NE & 5-HT
  • results in a higher [] of these in their synapses
157
Q

Psychological effects of cocaine

A
  • excessive confidence
  • high energy levels
  • being extra talkative
  • feeling fidgety
  • loss of appetite
158
Q

Chronic use of cocaine can lead to…

A

the CNS to expect higher DA levels (in particular) to feel its typical rewarding effects

159
Q

What are the most commonly abused stimulants?

A

amphetamines

160
Q

Which amphetamine is particularly addictive?

A

Meth

161
Q

NOTE

A

amphetamines have similar effects as cocaine, but w/ a slower onset & longer duration

162
Q

Chronic abuse can lead to psychotic sx like…

A
  • paranoia
  • hallucinations
  • erratic behavior, etc
163
Q

Example of opioids

A

morphine, codeine & heroin.

164
Q

Describe opioids.

A
  • highly effective analgesics, but very addictive
  • act on receptors in the brain that normally bind to endogenous opiates (endorphins)
165
Q

What are some addictive effects of opioids?

A

rush of pleasure & drowsy euphoria

166
Q

Withdrawal syndrome of opioids occurs w/n how much time of last dose?

A

hours

167
Q

What are the Sx of withdrawal syndrome from opioids?

A
  • constipation
  • pupil constriction
  • reduced libido
168
Q

What may help treat heroin addictions?

A

Methadone & buprenorphine replacement therapies

169
Q

Define Hazardous/risky substance use.

A

Consuming more of the drug than is recommended, which may put you at risk for developing adverse health effects

170
Q

Define substance use disorder?

A

An actual DSM-5 dx in which repeated psychoactive drug use is causing “significant impairment or distress”

171
Q

Dx of substance use disorder relies on…

A

both abuse & physical dependence to be present

172
Q

Describe the definition of addiction?

A
  • word origin denotes “enslavement”
  • user is no longer able to self-regulate consumption of a drug
173
Q

Does genetic play a role in addiction?

A

YES

174
Q

What are some psychological & social factors can also incr risk of addiction?

A
  • substance availability & cost
  • Socioeconomic factors
  • Racial & ethnic disparities
  • Traumatic experiences
  • Hx of mental health disorders
175
Q

NOTE

A

Drugs that reach the brain quickly & act on the brain’s “reward circuits” (often DA pathways) are typically those that are easiest to become addicted to

176
Q

Describe the progression of addiction

A

Initial drug taking–>
Habitual drug taking–>
Drug craving & repeated relapse

177
Q

Describe physical-dependence theories

A
  • Cycle of use is driven by avoiding withdrawal Sx
  • Tx: Withdraw drugs in hospital setting (still see relapse)

–> I need/have to take it

178
Q

Describe positive theories

A
  • Motivated by (+) drug effects
  • Crave (+) properties

–> it makes me feel good

179
Q

Describe incentive-sensitization theory

A
  • Addicts crave drugs more but enjoy them less
  • Must take more to get the same high, so dose increases over time
180
Q

Name to the 2 pathways that are a part of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system.

A
  • Nigrostriatal pathway
  • Mesocorticolimbic
181
Q

What are specific areas of targeted in the nigrostriatal pathway?

A

from substantia nigra to dorsal striatum

182
Q

Degeneration of the nigrostriatal pathway is associated with what condition?

A

Parkinson’s Disease

183
Q

Describe the mesotelencephalic dopamine system do?

A

a collective circuitry that reinforces behavior

184
Q

What are specific areas of targeted in the mesocorticolimbic pathway?

A

ventral tegmental area to cortical & limbic areas

185
Q

Which pathway mediates self-stimulation?

A

mesocorticolimbic pathway

186
Q

Dopaminergic input to this structure is critical to experience reward & pleasure.

A

Nucleus accumbens

187
Q

The nucleus accumbens is responsible for

A

reward & pleasure

Block 4 - Psych (4 decks)

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