A&P Final Flashcards
Units 1-4,6, and unit 7 & 8 ; adding unit 5 right now
1
Q
Integumentary sx
A
Contains the skin, hair & nails; offers protection, temperature regulation, water retention & sensation of the body
2
Q
Skeletal sx
A
Contains the bones, cartilage & ligaments; offers protection to the body organs, support & movement with muscles & contraction as well as blood formation through blood marrow
3
Q
Muscular sx
A
Contains primarily skeletal muscles; offers movement through muscle contraction & skeletal/heart muscles, assists with posture & heat production
4
Q
Lymphatic system
A
Contains lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, lymph, thymus, spleen & tonsils; sx has role in fluid balance, production of immune cells & defense against disease
5
Q
Respiratory sx
A
contains nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi & lungs; sx absorbs oxygen, discharges carbon dioxide, acid base balance & assists with speech
6
Q
Urinary sx
A
contains kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra; sx assists with excretion of wastes, regulation of blood volume & pressure, control of fluid & electrolytes and acid based balance
7
Q
Nervous sx
A
Contains brain, spinal cord & sense organs; sx controls, regulates & coordinates the other sxs, also assists with sensation & memory
8
Q
Endocrine sx
A
contains pituitary gland, adrenals, pancreas thyroid, parathyroids & other organs; sx assists with hormone production & control/regulation of other sx
9
Q
Circulatory sx
A
contains the heart, arteries, veins & capillaries; sx has a distribution of oxygen, nutrients, waste hormones, immune cells, electrolytes & antibodies. Also does fluid, electrolyte & acid-base balance
10
Q
Digestive sx
A
contains stomach, small & large intestines, esophagus, liver, mouth & pancreas; sx breaks down and absorbs nutrients as well as eliminates waste
11
Q
Male reproductive sx
A
contains testes, vas deferens, prostate, seminal vesicles & penis; sx does things for body such as secretion of sex hormones & production/delivery of sperm
12
Q
female reproductive sx
A
contains ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina & breast; sx produces eggs, site of fertilization & fetal development, birth, lactation & secretion of sex hormones
13
Q
Epithelial tissues
A
covers or lines body surfaces such as the outer layer of skin, walls of capillaries & kidney tubules
14
Q
Connective tissue
A
connects & supports parts of the body, transports & stores materials. Some examples are bone, cartilages & adipose tissues
15
Q
Muscle tissue
A
contracts to produce movement such as skeletal & heart muscles
16
Q
Nerve tissue
A
generates & transmits impulses to regulate body functions such as the brain & nerves
17
Q
Sagittal plane
A
divides into left and right sides however they are not equal sides
18
Q
Midsagittal plane
A
divides into left and right sides equally
19
Q
Transverse plane
A
divides the body into upper and lower portions can be also called the horizontal plane
20
Q
Frontal plane
A
divides the body into anterior and posterior portions, can also be called coronal place since the line crosses the crown of the head
21
Q
Describe anatomical position
A
Used to identify locations of body parts, accurate communication. Anatomical position is standing straight up with arms at side with face, palms and feet facing forward
22
Q
Dorsal body cavity
A
Located along the posterior side of the body(back); contains cranial cavity which holds the brain and spinal cavity which holds the spinal cord
23
Q
Ventral Body cavity
A
Along the anterior side of the body (front); contains the thoracic cavity which is above the diaphragm contains the lungs, heart & mediastinum & also contains the abdominopelvic cavity which divides into abdominal cavity (under the diaphragm, above the pelvis & contains the stomach, liver, gall bladder, pancreas, spleen, small intestine, most of the large intestine & kidneys) also the pelvic cavity which contains the urinary bladder, rectum & internal reproductive organs
24
Q
9 abdominal regions
A
right & left hypochondriac region, right & left lumbar region, right & left iliac region, epigastic region, umbilical region, hypogastic region
25
4 quadrants
RUQ, RLQ, LUQ, LLQ
26
Abdominal pain; where is the appendix located
right lower quadrant; located in right iliac region & tip of appendix in right lumbar region
27
abdominal pain; where is the gallbladder located
right upper quadrant , can also can referred pain in the shoulder; gallbladder located in right hypochondriac region
28
What elements make up 96% of human body?
CHON- Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen
29
What element makes up the greatest % of body weight?
Oxygen makes up 65% of body mass
30
Electrons
carry a negative charge; move around the nucleus in concentric clouds that represent different energy levels
31
Protons
carry a positive charge which is contained in the nucleus. Differentiate one element from another
32
Neutrons
electrically neutral
33
Define isotopes
an atom of an element containing a different number of neutrons
34
define covalent bonds
formed when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons; stronger than ionic bonds, used to create many of the chemical structures of the body
35
Define metabolism
the sum of all chemical reactions in the body
36
Catabolism
breaks down complex compounds into simpler ones, releases energy some heat mostly transferred into ATP
37
Define Anabolism
Larger, more complex chemical molecules from smaller subunits require energy; obtains energy from atp
38
chemical reactions: synthesis
A + B → AB ; Two or more substances combine to form a different more complex substance, new bonds are formed and energy is required. Ex wound healing; fors collagen to repair skin
39
Chemical reaction: decomposition
AB → A + B; A complex substance breaks down into two or more impeller substances; bonds are broken; energy is released- this energy can be released in the form of heat or stored for future use
40
Chemical reaction: Exchange
AB + CD → AC + BD
Two molecules exchange atoms or groups of atoms, which form two new compounds
41
define compound
two or more elements combine to create a new substance, new substance has its own chemical properties
42
define mixture
two substances blend together, do not chemically combine. Each retains unique chemical properties
43
define solution mixture
mixture is particles of matter (solute) dissolved in a substance (solvent). Can be gas, solid or liquid and also must be clear
44
Define colloid
mixture of protein and water, can change from liquid to gel and particles are small enough to stay mixed. Mixture is cloudy
45
Define suspension
contains large particles, will look cloudy or opaque, particles will settle
46
Importance of water & characteristics
water is a solvent, lubricant & water changes temperature slowly.
47
define pH scale
The acidity or alkalinity of a substance is expressed in terms of pH, pH scale ranges from 0-14
48
pH of blood
7.35-7.45
49
pH ranges
Acidic- solution with a pH less than 7
Alkaline- solution with pH of 7 is neutral
Neutral- solution with pH greater than 7
50
Organic compound 1 of 4
Carbohydrates- group of organic compounds known as starches or sugars that serves as the bodys primary source of energy
51
Organic compound 2 of 4
lipids- group of fats characterized by their insolubility in water
52
Organic compound 3 of 4
Proteins- very large molecules consisting of smaller chemical subunits called amino acids
53
Organic compound 4 of 4
Nucleic acids- complex organic substances especially in DNA & RNA
54
Define & specific task of Nucleolus
manufactures ribosomes
55
Define & specific task of endoplasmic reticulum
network of membranous canals & curving sacs through out the cytoplasm
56
Define & specific task of ribosomes
manufacture proteins; dot the surface of some of the ER
57
Define & specific task of microvili
folds of the cell membrane; increases the surface area of the cell
58
Define & specific task of cilia
hair like processes on the cell surface; moves in waves to propel a substance forwards
59
Define & specific task of flagella
uses a whip like motion to move a cell
60
define hydrostatic pressure
as water diffuses by osmosis into a solution, the volume of that solution increases, exerting more pressure
61
define osmotic pressure
water pressure that develops in a solution as a result of osmosis
62
define hypotonic
A solution with a lower concentration of solutes when compared to that inside the cell; water moves by osmosis into the cell; influx of water causes the cell to swell & burst (lysis)
63
Define hypertonic
A solution with a higher concentration of solutes than the concentration of the cell (inside the cell); water moves out of cell; cell shrivels & may die3% Normal saline (3% NaC)
64
define isotonic
A solution with the same concentration of solutes as that inside the cell; water moves into & out of the cell at an equal rate; cells remain normal in size
65
Sodium potassium pump
Active transport, Regulates the volume of fluid within cells, Provides the electrical potential necessary for nervous system activity, Helps in heat production, Transfers sodium from inside the cell (where sodium levels are low) to outside the cell (where sodium levels are higher), At the same time, it transfers potassium from the extracellular fluid (where potassium levels are low) to the cell’s interior (where potassium levels are higher)
66
Define human microbiome
essential for human life
67
Define human microbiome project
scientist are doing DNA sequencing research to identify bacteria in our body; unseen world & bacteria cells out number human cells
68
define bacteria
tiny, single celled organisms that are a major part of the microbiome
69
define capsule
a jelly like layer that keeps bacteria moist and protects them
70
define viruses
extremely small infectious agents, not cells, to reproduce they must be inside a host cell, viruses are simply a bundle of genetic material (RNA or DNA) surrounded by a protein shell called a capsid
71
Define fungi
common & easily spread, many fungal infections start on skin or lungs, lives in soil, plants and in the air. million of fungal species are part of the human microbiome
72
define pathogen
a microogranism know to cause disease; invasion by disease causing bacteria
73
define archaea
microscopic single cels organisms that like bacteria, do not contain a nucleus, lacks peptidoglycans. 3 domains make up life on earth; bacteria, archaea and complex life
74
what is the link between bacteria & antibiotic resistance
plasmids are small loops of DNA inside bacteria that can be shared with other bacteria, helping them quickly adapt to changes.
75
Gram-positive bacteria & how antibiotics work
have a thick later of peptidoglycan in cell wall, retain dye, stains purple; Antibiotics such as penicillin work by attacking the peptidoglycan in the bacterial cell wall, they are more effective against Gram-positive bacteria
76
Gram-negative bacteria & how antibiotics work
thin layer of peptidoglycan in cell wall & also have outer membrane, lose dye when rinsed and appears red or pink ;Gram-negative bacteria are often more resistant to antibiotics due to their outer membrane, which blocks many drugs, and mechanisms like efflux pumps and beta-lactamase enzymes that destroy or expel antibiotics.
77
general understanding of the fertilized egg & role in tissue development
A fertilized egg organizes into three layers; each of these layers gives rise to a different type of tissue (Endoderm*Mesoderm*Ectoderm) Layers continue to divide; eventually each layer gives rise to a different type of tissue differentiation, Stem cells can differentiate into many different types of cells
78
Ectoderm (outer layer)
gives rise to epidermis and nervous system
79
mesoderm (middle layer)
gives rise to connective & muscle tissue ( cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, bone, blood & smooth muscle)
80
Endoderm (inner layer)
produces mucous membrane of respiratory tract, thyroid gland, secretory parts of pancreas
81
define differentiation
the process of each layer gives rise to a different type of tissue
82
Epithelial tissue
epithelial tissue is a continuous sheet of tightly packed cells; it covers the body’s surface, lines body cavities and many organs, and forms certain glands. Key functions involve protection, absorption, filtration, and secretion.
83
Connective tissue
Existing in a variety of forms—ranging from tough cords to elastic sheets to fluid—connective tissue performs a variety of tasks. The overriding purposes of this seemingly diverse group of tissues are to connect the body together and to support, bind, or protect organs.
84
Nervous tissue
Nervous tissue has a high degree of excitability and conductivity, It’s these characteristics that allow it to communicate rapidly with other parts of the body, Nervous tissue has a high degree of excitability and conductivity—more so than other tissues. It’s these characteristics that allow it to communicate rapidly with other parts of the body.
85
Muscle tissue
Muscle tissue consists of elongated cells that contract in response to stimulation. The body contains three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
86
components of connective tissue
extracellular matrix, The matrix consists of varying kinds and amounts of protein fibers and fluid; it’s the variation in composition that gives tissue its characteristics;
*Collagenous fibers: These are strong and flexible but resist stretching; these are the most abundant fibers.
* Reticular fibers: These occur in networks and support small structures such as capillaries and nerve fibers.
* Elastic fibers: Made of a protein called elastin, these fibers can stretch and recoil like a rubber band.
87
Define stem cells
specialized cells that can differentiate into many different type of cells
88
Define exocrine glands
secrete products into ducts; the ducts then empty onto a body surface or inside a body cavity, ex gastic juices, tears & swear
89
define endocrine glands
secretes hormones directly into the blood; known as ductless glands; ex ovaries, pitutiary gland
90
key functions of epithelium
fxn in protection, absorption, filtration & secretion, covers body surfaces, lines cavities & organs, forms glands
91
define goblet cells
modified cells containing secretory vesicles that produce large quanitites of mucus ex epithelial lining of organs; the intestines & respiratory tract
92
connective tissue
most widespread & diverse, exists in a variety of forms, fxn & purpose is to connect the body together & support, bind, or protect organs
93
extracellular matrix
consists of protein fibers & fluid, framework in which cells are embedded
94
Basic types of connective tissue: connective tissue
Loose Connective Tissue: Includes areolar, adipose, and reticular tissue. It provides cushioning, insulation, and support for organs.
Dense Connective Tissue: Includes dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic tissue. It forms strong structures like tendons and ligaments.
95
Basic connective tissue: cartilage
Types: Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage.
Provides flexible support and reduces friction in joints.
96
Basic connective tissue: Bone
Made of compact and spongy bone.
Provides structure, support, and protection for the body.
97
Basic connective tissue: Blood
A fluid connective tissue composed of cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets) suspended in plasma.
Transports nutrients, oxygen, and waste.
98
Basic connective tissue: Lymph
Fluid connective tissue that helps with immune responses and the return of interstitial fluid to the bloodstream.
99
Skeletal muscle
Long, cylindrical, multinucleated fibers with a striated (striped) appearance. It is under voluntary control, meaning movements can be consciously controlled.
Location: Attached to bones by tendons; found in muscles like the biceps, quadriceps, and diaphragm.
Function: Enables movement of the skeleton, posture maintenance, and heat production.
100
Cardiac muscle
Branched, striated fibers with a single nucleus per cell and intercalated discs that allow for synchronized contractions. It is under involuntary control.
Location: Found exclusively in the walls of the heart (myocardium).
Function: Pumps blood throughout the body by rhythmic contractions.`
101
Smooth muscle
Spindle-shaped, non-striated cells with a single nucleus. It is under involuntary control.
Location: Found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, intestines, blood vessels, bladder, and uterus.
Function: Facilitates movement of substances through the organ (e.g., food in the digestive tract or blood through vessels) and regulates internal processes like blood pressure.
102
Tissue repair: regeneration
damaged tissue cells are replaced with the same type of cells, resulting in functional new tissue
103
tissue repair: Fibrosis
damaged tissue is replaced with scar tissue (which is mostly collagen); fibrosis does not restore normal function
104
Granulation tissue
newly formed tissue; fibroblasts in the granulation tissue secrete collagen, which forms scar tissue inside the wound*White blood cells ingest bacteria & cellular debris to keep the wound bed clean
105
Mucous membrane
line body surfaces that open directly to the body’s exterior; secrete mucus, which protects cells of the membrane, acts as a lubricant to propel food through the digestive tract & traps dust and bacteria in the respiratory tract. The type of epithelium varies according to location and functio
106
Cutaneous membrane
(or skin) is the body’s largest membrane; consists of a layer of epithelium on a layer of connective tissue`
107
Serous membrane
consists of simple squamous epithelium on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue. The portion covering the wall of the cavity is the parietal membrane, which folds back & covers the organs; this is the visceral membrane;which secretes serous fluid, which reduces friction as organs expand & contract
108
Pleura membrane
serous membrane; surrounds each lung and lines the thoracic cavity
109
Pericardium
serous membrane; surrounds the heart
110
peritoneum
lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs
111
serous fluid
helps prevent friction as the heart beats & lungs expand
112
what functions & roles does the skin play as it relates to the human body?
protection & temperature regulation
113
define melanin
produced by melanocytes, determines a persons skin color by the amount & type of melanin (NOT THE # OF MELANOCYTES)
114
Define albinism
a genetic lack of melanin, extremely pale skins, white hair & pink eyes
115
define keratin
a tough, fibrous protein
116
Clubbing
Abnormal nail change, long term oxygen deficiency usually a result of lung disease
117
Cyanosis
a deficiency of oxygen in circulating blood, ex blood tint on the tip of fingertips when cold
118
pale nail beds
decreased blood flow, such as cold temps, fears or emotional stress, low blood pressure
119
yellowish thickened nails
impaired liver functions, allows bile to accumulate which stains
120
Describe the changes in the skin due to aging process & how it affects body temperature regulation
Thinning of the Epidermis and Dermis- The skin becomes thinner and less resilient due to reduced cell production and collagen breakdown.
Decreased Elasticity- Loss of elastin fibers leads to sagging and wrinkling of the skin.
Reduction in Sweat Glands and Sebaceous Gland Activity- Fewer active sweat glands reduce sweat production, while decreased oil secretion makes the skin drier.
Decline in Blood Flow- Reduced blood supply to the dermis affects nutrient delivery and temperature regulation.
Loss of Subcutaneous Fat- Thinning of the subcutaneous layer reduces insulation, making the skin more sensitive to temperature changes.
Impact on Body Temperature Regulation
Impaired Sweating
121
what is insensible perspiration: define & describe
insensible perspiration: perspiration that doesn’t make the skin feel damp. Perspiration increases dramatically from heat or exercise. In fact, the body can lose as much as a liter of perspiration an hour from intense exercise or extreme heat. If the fluid isn’t replaced, dehydration or even circulatory shock may result.
122
eccrine glands
contain a duct that leads from the secretory portion to the skin’s surface. Eccrine glands produce sweat; which plays a role in helping the body maintain a constant core temperature & helps the body eliminate wastes
123
apocrine glands (sweat glands)
contain a duct that leads to a hair follicle; respond to stress & sexual stimulation. *Sweat produced by apocrine glands does not have a strong odor when it accumulates on the skin, bacteria begins to degrade substances in the sweat, resulting in body odor
124
Sebaceous glands
Secrete an oily substance called sebum; helps keep the skin & hair from drying out and becoming brittle*Has a mild antibacterial & antifungal effect
125
ceruminous glands
Exist in the external ear canal; secrete a waxy substance called cerumen (ear wax); helps keep ear canal from drying out*Excess cerumen can accumulate in the ear canal & harden, diminishing hearing
126
First degree burn
only involves the epidermis, causes redness, slight swelling & pain, can result from sunlight (AKA sunburn), burns is risk for infection, black scab holds bacteria in & restricts blood flow, a partial thickness burn
127
second degree burn
involves the epidermis & part of the dermis; results in blisters, severe pain & swelling, may result in scarring, can appear red, white or tan & a partial thickness burn
128
third degree burn
extends through epidermis & dermis & into the subcutaneous layer, full thickness burn. May not be painful initially (nerve endings are destroyed), often requires skin grafts, risk for infection, fluid loss & lack of thermoregulation
129
rules of nines
divides the body into areas of 9%, add corresponding percentages for each body section burned
130
Long bones
longer than they are wide, work like levers to move limbs
131
short bones
shaped like cubes
132
flat bones
thin, flat, often curved bones, they protect organs and other flat bones (ex scapulae) provide large surface area for the attachment of mucles
133
irregular bones
often clustered in groups, comes in various sizes & shapes
134
135
sesamoid bones
small bones imbedded in tendons
136
Parts of long bone: diaphysis
Hollow cylinder, compact bone; gives bone strength to support the body weights
137
parts of long bone: articular cartilage
hyaline membrane; covers the epiphysis(head of each end of a bone) eases movement of the bone within a joint
138
parts of a long bone; medullary cavity
central hollow portion of the diaphysis; filled with yellow bone marrow
139
parts of a long bone; endosteum
epithelial membrane lining the medullary cavity
140
parts of a long bone; red bone marrow
fills the medullary cavity in children; in adults most marrow has turned yellow
141
Parts of a long bone; periosteum
A dense, fibrous membrane covering the diaphysis; some penetrate the bone & other fibers weave together with the fibers of tendons to ensure a strong connection between muscle and bone; *Contains bone-forming cells & blood vessels; crucial for bone survival
142
parts of a long bone; epiphyseal plate(growth plate)
The layer of cartilage separating the epiphysis from the diaphysis at the ends of a long bone in growing children. When growth stops, it is replaced with an epiphyseal line
143
parts of a long bone; Osteomyelitis
an inflammation of bone and marrow, usually the result of a bacterial infection. Bone infections are often difficult to treat and typically require prolonged intravenous antibiotic
144
osteoblasts
Help form bone by secreting substances that makeup bone matrix
145
osteoclasts
Dissolve unwanted bone or unhealthy bone tissue
146
Osteocytes
Are mature osteoblasts embedded in hardened bone matrix; some dissolve bone, whereas others deposit bone- contributing to the maintenance of bone density; helps regulate blood levels of calcium & phosphorus‒Become more active when building bone
147
torsional strength
bone can not endure much twisting
148
compressional strength/calcium salts
allows bones to resist strong squeezing forces
149
tensile strength/collagen fibers
in the matrix make bone highly resistant to stretching forces
150
compact bone
forms shafts of long bones & surfaces of other bones; dense & solid; offers strength
151
spongy bone
found in the ends of long bones and middle of other bones, always surrounded by compact bone
152
ossification; new bone development
this early skeleton evolves into bone, two types of ossification processes: one for fibrous connective tissue & one for cartilage
153
Intramembranous ossification: new bone development
Begins in a fibrous connective tissue membrane.
Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts, which secrete bone matrix.
The matrix calcifies, trapping osteoblasts, which then become osteocytes.
Trabeculae form, creating spongy bone, and the outer layers may compact to form compact bone.
154
Endochondral ossification; new bone development
Begins in a cartilage model made of hyaline cartilage.
Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) enlarge, die, and are replaced by bone tissue.
Blood vessels invade the area, bringing osteoblasts that form bone matrix.
Bone development proceeds from the primary ossification center in the diaphysis (shaft) and extends toward the epiphyses (ends).
Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses, leaving cartilage only at the growth plates and articular surfaces.
155
Define trabeculae
Spongy ( cancellous bone) consists of a latticework of bone , are arranged in a way that offers maximum strength. If the stress a bone is exposed to changes, the trabeculae will realign to compensate
156
osteon
the basic structural unit of compact bone
157
lacunae
tiny gaps between rings of the lamellae
158
lamellae
layers of matrix are arranged in concentric rings
159
volkmanns canals
transverse passageways, connect the haversian canals; they transport blood & nutrients from the bone’s exterior to the osteocytes locked inside
160
bone formation at 2 years of age
skull is completely ossified
161
bone formation in utero
fetus skeleton composed of mostly cartilage
162
bone formation at 3 months of age
cartilage beings to turn into bone
163
simple fracture
remains aligned & tissue intactscom
164
compound fracture
bone breaks skin; damage to nerve & blood vessles; high risk for infection
165
greenstick fracture
an incomplete break
166
comminuted fracture
bone break due to high impact trauma, broken into pieces (ex motor vehicle )
167
spiral fracture
spiraling fracture, bone twisting, difficult to reposition/align (suspect abuse)
168
pathologic fracture
fracture due to pathologic condition or cancer
169
the nucleus of the cell is called the control center because
it contains cells genetic info
170
the plasma membrane is made up of
phospholipids, cholesterol & protein
171
chief purpose of the golgi apparatus
prepare and package proteins to export them
172
function of mitochondria
powerhouse, converts organic compound into atp
173
define osmotic pressure
osmotic pressure occures when water pressure develops in a solution as a result of osmosis
174
define passive transport
do not require energy, depend on substance moving down concentration gradient
175
define diffusion
molecules evenly distributed throughout a given area until substance reaches equilibrium
176
define osmosis
passive movement of water through selectively permeable membrane
177
define faciliated diffusion
transport process from small charged or polar solutes requires assistence from plasma through a channel protein
178
define active transport
requires energy; movement of solute against its concentration gradient
179
how many adult bones in the body
206 bones
180
Axial skeleton
Central, supporting axis- skull, vertebral column, and rib cage
181
Appendicular skeleton
bones of the limbs, pelvic & shoulder areas; relates to the appendages of the body such as arms & legs
182
Coronal suture
between parietal & front bone
183
sagittal suture
between right & left parietal bones
184
squamous suture
edge of temporal bone
185
lambdoid suture
between parietal & occipital bone
186
Newborn bone count
300 bones or more
187
Infant skull; suture lines
suture lines in the skull have not fused yet, also for infants to pass through birth canal also allows for rapid brain growth during infancy
188
infant skull fontanels
areas between unfused bones covered by fibrous membranes called fontanels, soft to touch, by the age two fontanels are closed
189
s & s assosciated with abnormal findings in infant skull
-wide suture lines suggest hydrocephalus(excessive amounts of cerebrospinal fluid)
-sunken frontanel suggest dehydration
-bulging frontanel suggest intracranial pressure
190
five sections of the vertebral column
cervical (7) , thoracic (12) , lumbar(5), sacrum (5) & coccyx (4 fused)
191
define scoliosis
lateral curvature of spine
192
define kyphosis
thoracic curvature "hunchback"
193
define lordosis
Lumbar curvature "Swayback"n
194
vertebrae characteristics:vertebral foramen
allows passage of spinal cord
195
vertebrae characteristics: body
weight bearing portion of the vertebra
196
vertebrae characteristics: spinous process
projects posteriorly from the vertebra, the bumps you feel along the spine
197
what is the function of the intervertebral disk
layer of cartilage between each vertebra designed to support weight and absorb shock
198
Ribs 1-7
true ribs, attached to the sternum by a strip of hyaline cartilage called costal cartilage
199
ribs 8,9 & 10
attach to the cartilage of rib 7
200
ribs 11 & 12
false/floating ribs, doesnt attach to any part of the thoracic cage
201
acromion process
extension of the scapula that articulates with the clavicle , only point where the arm and scapula attach to the rest of the skeleton
202
humerus
long bone of the upper arm; head enlarged end of this bone covered with articular cartilage, olecranon fossa(depression on the posterior side of the humerus), olecranon process (bony point of the elbow; slides in the olecranon fossa when arm is extended)
203
ulna
other bone of the lower arm; its longer than the radius
204
radius
the radius is a distinctive disc that rotate on the humerus when the palm is turned forward & back
205
what forms the wrist
eight carpal bones, arranged in two rows of four bones, bones allow wrist to move back and fourth as well as side to side
206
describe the different between a female and male pelvis
the female pelvis is adapted for pregnancy & childbirth; the true pelvis is wide and shallow in females, narrow & deep in males
207
what is the pelvic outlet, its importance in delivery of the newborn & which measurement is essential for vaginal delivery
pelvic outlet is the lower edge of the true pelvis, the diameter of the pelvic outlet is measured as the distance between the two ischial bones, outlet is the passageway through an infant enters the world. ischial bones must be wide enough to allow his head to pass
208
synovial joints
free moveable; contains a fluid filled joint capsule; most numerous & versatile ex knee (diarathroses)
209
fibrous joint
fixed not move; bound by fibers ex skull, adult skull suture joints (synarthroses)
210
amphiarthroses
cartilaginous joints, semi moveable; joined by cartilage ex sy,physis pubis
211
joint capsule
a sheet of connective tissue that encloses the joint cavity, encloses the joint cavity; extends from the periosteum of each articulating bone
212
synovial membrane
a moist, slippery membrane that lines the inside of the joint capsule; secretes synovial fluid, provides friction free movement & phagocytes to remove debris
213
synovial fluid
a slippery, viscous fluid with the consistency of an egg white, lubricates the joint, nourishes the cartilage & contains phagocytes to remove debris
214
gliding joint
least mobile of all synovial joints; flat bones sliding over each other; surrounding ligaments limit the amount of movement ex tarsal bones of the ankle. carpal bones of wrist
215
condyloid joint
allows flexion & extension as well as side to side movement oval convex surface on one bone fits into the depression on another
216
which two structure are responsible for friction free movement
synovial membrane & articular cartilage
217
describe the characteristics of the shoulder joint & why it is considered more mobile than stable
shoulder & hip joint; ball shaped head of one bone fits into a cuplike socket of other bone; offers widest range of motion (considered more mobile than stable because can easily dislocate)
218
describe & know anatomical location of the rotator cuff
tendons of several surrounding muscles form; holding the head of the humerus in the shallow glenoid cavity
219
define & describe: osteoarthritis
wear & tear on the joints; articulate cartilage softens & degenerates
220
define rheumatoid arthritis
autoimmune disorder; bodys antibodies attach synovial membranes; leads to degeneration of articular cartilage & thickening of synovial membrane; causing inflammation & destruction of joints
221
define cardiac muscles
involuntary, contracts automatically found only in the hearts; consists of short branching fibers that fit together at intercalated disks appears striated
222
define smooth muscle
involuntary; contracts automatically found in the digestive tract, blood vessels, bladder, airways & uterus; muscle is nonstriated
223
define skeletal muscle
voluntary; attached to bone & causes movement of the body; appears markedly striated when examined with a microscope
224
define endomysium
a deliate connective tissue covers each muscle fibers
225
define epimysium
a layer of connective tissue that surrounds the muscle as a whole & extends past the muscle as a flat connective tissue binding all the muscle fibers together; this how muscles attach to other muscles
226
define fascicles
group of muscle fibers
227
define myofibrils
long protein bundles that fill the sarcoplasm & stores glycogen & oxygen
228
define transverse T tubules
allows electric impulses travel down deep into the cell
229
sarcomere
thick & think myofilaments stack together in a type of latticework to form units; unit of contraction
230
how do muscles attach to one another
epimysium
231
what two key components re needed for muscle contraction
ATP & calcium (without calcium, movement is not possible
232
prime mover
main muscle triggering the movement
233
synergists
muscled that assist the prime mover
234
anatagonist
Muscle that balance these movements
235
define central nervous system
consists of brain and spinal cord
236
define peripheral nervous system
consists of vast network of nerves
237
parasympathetic system
calming effect; rest & digest
238
sympathetic nervous system
arouses the body for action; fight or flight
239
define oligodendrocyte
form myelin sheath; speed signal conduction
240
define microglia
perform phagocytosis of microogranism & cellular debris
241
define astrocyte
form blood brain barrier
242
sensory (afferent) neuron
carries signals from nerves to body, detect stimuli
243
interneurons
Connect incoming sensory pathways with outgoing motor pathways in the central nervous system; connect pathway
244
motor (efferent) nuerons
transmit info from CNS to body, relays messages from brain to muscle or gland cells
245
what role do nuerotransmitters play in impulse conduction/control
neurotransmitters determine whether the impulse continues or stopped
246
which specific areas do these nerves innervate; cervical
chest, head, neck, shoulders, arms, hands & diaphragms
247
which specific areas do these nerves innervate; thoracic
intercostal muscles of the ribcage, abdominal muscles & back muscles
248
which specific areas do these nerves innervate; lumbar
lower abdominal wall & part of thighs and legs
249
which specific areas do these nerves innervate; sacral
thighs buttocks muscles skin of the legs, feet , anal and genital regions
250
how many pairs of spinal nerves
31 pairs
251
what is the connection between the spinal tract & signs and symptoms seen in a stroke patients
Motor Tracts (Corticospinal): Damage causes weakness or paralysis on the opposite side of the body.
Sensory Tracts (Spinothalamic & Dorsal Column): Disruption leads to loss of sensation (e.g., pain, touch, proprioception).
Cerebellar Pathways: Stroke here results in coordination and balance issues (ataxia).
252
general understanding of the sacral plexus
formed from fibers from nerves L4 L5 & S1 through S4, the sciatic nerve, the largest nerve in the body, arises here and runs down the back of the thigh
253
general understanding of the cervical plexus
contains the nerves that supply the muscles and skins of the neck, tops of shoulders & part of the head, the phrenic nerve, which stimulates the diaphragm for breathing is located here
254
what is the function of the arachnoid villi & its role in the homeostasis of the brain
CSF is reabsorbed into the venous bloodstream by projection of the arachoid mater into the dural sinus
255
what is the function of hypothalamus
controls ANS, contains centers responsible for hunger, thirst & temperature regulation, controls the pituitary gland, involved in multiple emotional responses including dear anger pleasure and aggression
256
what is the function of cerebrum
Voluntary movements (motor control).
Sensory processing (touch, vision, hearing, etc.).
Cognitive functions (thinking, memory, reasoning).
Emotions and behavior.
Language and communication.
257
what is the function of the front lobe of the brain
central sulcus forms the posterior boundary, governs voluntary movements, memory, emotion, social judgement, decision making, reasoning & aggression, also site for certain aspects of ones personality
258
describe the autonomic pathway; parasympathetic division
has a calming effect on body functions; decreases HR, constricts broncial tubes to decrease air flow in lungs, no effects on blood vessels of skeletal muscles , no effect on adrenal medulla, stimulates bladder wall to contract and internal sphnicter to relax for urination
259
what is the function of the parietal lobe
concerned with receiving and interpreting bodily sensations (ex touch, temp, pressure and pain) also governs proprioception (the awareness of ones body & body parts in space and in relation to each other
260
describe the autonomic pathways; sympathetic division
increases alertness, increases HR, dilates bronchial tubes to increase air flow in the lungs, dilates blood vessels of skeletal muscles to increase blood flow
261
describe the ganglia of the parasympathetic division
lie in or near target organs
262
sensory receptor slow pain fibers
produce a dull aching pain
263
sensory receptor fast pain fibers
sharp localized stabbing type pain
264
define nociceptors
265
define spinoretticular tract
266
describe impulse pathway and the nerves involved in the sense of taste
gustation: taste results when chemicals encounter taste buds
267
describe the process of the sense of smell
incoming odor molecules bind to cilia projecting from the ends of olfactory receptors cells which triggers the process of sense of smell
268
Define semicircular canals
these structures are crucial for the maintenance of equilibrium and balance
269
define vestibule
this structure which marks the entrance to the labyrinths contains organs necessary for sense of balance
270
define cochlea
the snail like structure contains the structures for hearing
271
key structures responsible for balance
semicircular canals & vestibule
272
define and describe lacrimal punctum
this tiny pore at the end of each lacrimal canal drains tears into the lacrimal canals and nasolacrimal duct
273
define and describe conjunctiva
secretes thin layer of mucous film to keep eyeball moist
274
define and describe retina
thin layer of light sensitive cells
275
define and describe fovea centralis
produces the sharpest vision
276
define and describe macula lutea
the center point of the retina, seen through an opthalmoscope
277
define and describe aqueous humor
fills the anterior cavity
278
define and describe canal of schlemm
aqueous humor drains into, which delivers the fluid to surrounding blood vessels
279
define and describe glaucoma
aqueous humor accumulates anterior & posterior chambers
280
define and describe refraction
Light rays entering the eye must be bent so they focus precisely on the retina. Bending of light rays
281
define and describe convergence
lines up the visual axis of each eye toward the object so that the light rays fall on the corresponding spots on each retina.
282
define and describe accommodation
Although the cornea refracts most of the light rays entering the eye, the lens fine-tunes the rays for sharper focus. Specifically, the curvature of the lens changes to allow the eye to focus on a near object,
283
which muscle surrounds the spermatic cord & its testis (it contracts in cold weather)
cremaster muscle
284
spermatogenesis begins
seminiferous tubules
285
interstitial cells that produce testosterone are also known as
leydig cells
286
where does sperm mature
epididymis
287
pathway to sperm
seminiferous tubules→ Rete testis→ Efferent ductules→Epididymis→Vas deferens→Pelvic cavity→Seminle vesicle→ Ejaculatory duct→Urethra
288
how long does mature sperm remain fertile before they are ejaculated
40-60 days
289
know the term for the two large cylinders of erectile tissues that fill the shaft of the penis
corpus carvenousa
290
know which hormones promote the enlargement of the testes
FSH & LH
291
what is the purpose of the enzymes contained in the acrosome
help sperm penetrate the egg during fertilization
292
2 qualities of semen that aids in fertilizations
stickiness & alkalinity
293
primary reproductive organs in females
ovaries
294
what does the ovary contain
1000s of immature eggs/ oocytes
295
usual site of fertilization
ampulla
296
which layer of the uterus does the embryo attach to
endometrium
297
which structures of the female breast secrete milk during laction
acini
298
know the hormone that stimulates the development of a follicle in women
FSH
299
persistent high levels of estrogen & progesterone would cause what to occur
lack of follicular development
300
which hormone is secreted by a developing follicle & what effects occur
secrete estrogen which stimulates the thickening of the endometrium in the menstrual cycle, small amounts of progesterone
301
if a female pt had a lab results in high levels of LH, what would you suspect
ovulation
302
how many chromosomes a zygote has
46 chromosomes
303
how long does gestation last
280 days/ 40 wks
304
which stage of pregnancy most organs are developed
second trimester
305
know the term for the blackberry-like cluster of cells that enter the uterine cavity 3 to 4 days after ovulation
morula
306
When does implantation occur (approximately)
6 days after ovulation
307
know which portion of the blastocyst fuses with the endometrium
thromphoblast
308
define hCG & what does it do?
Hormone secreting estrogen & progesterone; progesterone stimulates endometrium growth & prevents menustation
309
Describe the amnion and what a fetus is able to do
Transparent sac that completely envelopes the embryo filled with amniotic fluid: fetus can "breathe" fluid & swallow
310
The allantois serves as the foundation for
developing umbilical cord
311
The chorion forms the
Fetal side of the placenta
312
The umbilical cord contains
2 umbilical arteries , 1 umbilical vein
313
Blood returns to the fetus from the placenta via
umbilical cord vein
314
Describe the role served by the ductus venosus
shunts blood around the liver
315
What symptoms would you expect to see if the ductus arteriosus fails to close at birth? why?
respiratory difficulty, blood will enter babys lungs
316
know when the fetal heart begins to beat
day 22
317
quickening or fetal movement can usually be felt when
20 wks
318
the fetal respiratory system although immature, is capable of gas exchange at how many weeks
wk 28
319
the onset of labor is thought to result from several factors such as
decline of progesterone
release of oxytocin
uterine stretching
320
stage 1 of labor ends when
The cervix is fully dialated
321
stage 2 of labor ends when
head emerges, mucus is cleared from baby mouth/nose to facilitate breathing. Umbilical cord clamped & cut
322
when hormone cause the lobules in the breast to contract, forcing milk into the ductus
oxytocin
323
Apgar score rating
7-10 normal
4-6 fairly low
3 & below critically low
324
Difference between homozygous & heterozygous
Homozygous (alleles same)
Heterozygous (Alleles different)
325
what is a genome
A complete set of genetic information for one person carried on the 23 pairs of chromosomes
326
chromosomes ingerited from mother & father, but do not play a role in determination of gender
autosomes
327
Alleles that are equally dominant
codominant
328
Know which disorder causes a syndromes who characteristics include a webbed neck & short stature
turners syndrome
329
Klinefelter syndrome results from
nondysfunction of sex chromosomes
330
Know what happens to children who inherit one copt of allele in autosomal recessive disorder like do they manifest symptoms of the disorder, are they carriers of the disorder or are they unaffected
they are carriers of the disorder
331
describe multifactorial disorders
disorder resulting from many contributing factors including genetic & environment
332
majority of the bodys water resides
in the cells
333
what occurs in the body when the volume of total body water declines
BP drops, sodium concentration increases, osmolarity increases
334
explain ADH & its effects on the body
ADH prompts kidneys to reabsorb more water & produce less urine
335
dehyrdration
body eliminated more water than sodium
336
fluid overload
water intoxication
337
what causes edema
electrolyte imbalances, increased capillary pressure, decrease concentration of plasma proteins
338
electrolytes & their role
sodium; determine the volume of total body water; influences water distributuion
339
pH of blood
7.35-7.45
340
buffer system respiratory
faster
341
renal buffer system
slowest, takes up to 24hrs, powerful but slow
342
hyperkalemia
developed suddenly crush injury, motor vehicle accident
343
hypokalemia
chronic diahrrea , prolonged use of potassium waste diuretics
344
explain the enteric nervous system
has own nervous system, part of cns
345
mesenetries and their purpose
prevent friction and localize infection
346
composition & function of saliva
consistency mostly of water, breaks down starch and begins digestion
347
what part of tooth can not regenerate
enamel
348
passage way for chyme as it leaves the stomach
between stomach and duodenum
349
majority of digestion process and absorption of nutrients occur
small intestine
350
which liver structure receives oxygen poor, nutrient rich blood
the portal vein
351
which liver structure blood filters through, removes nutrients, toxins and hormones
sinusoids
352
passage way of bile as it leaves the liver
leaves liver by hepatic ducts then forms into common hepatic duct which becomes the common bile duct
353
function of the gallbladder
stores & concentrates bile
354
know the hormone Cholecystokin & function
causes gallbladder to contract, forcing bile into the bile duct
355
duodenum
digestion takes place in
356
jejunum
increases surface area, greater absorption
357
function of the large intestine
absorbs large amounts of water from the residue before passing the resulting waste out of the body
358
which does not product digestive enzymes
liver
359
what enzyme digests carbohydrates
amylase, sucrase and lactase
360
where is protein digested
stomach and small intestine
361
where is most of the water you drink absorbed
large intestine
362
define calorie
energy that the body uses as fuel
363
the cells in the duodenum and jejunum secretes which hormone
cck , cholecystokinin
364
micronutrient
vitamins and minerals
365
macronutrient
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and water
366
primary energy resource in the body is
carbohydrates
367
fat soluble vitamins
ADEK
368
true statement about lipids
act as a resevior of excess energy, enables absorption and insulate the body
369
can essential fatty acids be synthesized by the body
no they can not be synthesized
370
what is a source of an unsaturated fat
nuts
371
describe how a protein is digested
once absorbed, recombines to create new ones
372
what is a challenge that a person on a vegan diet may face
protein
373
which vitamin would be beneficial for a patient with a wound on their leg
vitamin A
374
primary goal of glucose catabolism
generates ATP
375
which process requires the most energy
aerobic respiration
376
describe glycolysis
part of carbohydrate metabolism, part of glycocanbilism
377
the breakdown of fat produces
more than twice as much energy as the breakdown of carbohydrates
378
what must occur before proteins can be used as fuel
amino acids must be altered in the liver
379
what toxic by product does protein catabolism produce
ammonia
380
negative nitrogen balance
regarding a patient with a wasting illness
381
what occurs when a body temp rises too high
hypothalamos signals blood vesels to dialate
382
how lymph moves
lymphatic system has no pump, fluid moves slowly & passively, aid & by rhythmic contractions of the lymphatic vessels themselves, one way valves prevent backflow
383
peyer patches
small masses of lymphatic tissue, monitor bacterial populations within the intestine and help prevent the growth of harmful bateria
384
function of lymphatic system
maintence of fluid balance, absorption of fats and immunity
385
thymus
t lymphocytes travel from red bone marrow to the outer cortex of the thymus t lymphocytes migrate to the inner medulla, they get "trained" to distinguish between the cell of host body and foreign cells
386
lymph nodes & cancers
cancer often spreads through lymphatic system, cancel cells break free of original tumor then enter lymphatic vessels and travel to nearest lymph nodes
387
spleen functions
immunity, destruction of old RBCs, blood storage, hematopoeisis, largest lymphatic organ (LUQ in abdomen)
388
1st line of defense
external barriers keep pathogens at bay, skin & mucous membranes
389
2nd line of defense
nonspecific immunity, immunity at birth
390
3rd line of defense
specific immunity, body learns and remembers how to fight specific pathogens
391
natural active immunity
body produces antibodies after being exposed
392
artificial active imunity
immunity after vax
393
natural passive immunity
when fetus gets antibodies from mom through placenta
394
external barriers
mucus, tears & saliva contain a enzyme lysozyme which destroys bacteria
395
complement system
helps or complements the ability of antibodies & phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism
396
inflammation
this stimulates the bodys defense system to being fightin the infection while instigating measures to contain the pathogen (4 signs redness, swelling, heat & pain)
397
artificial passive immunity
when a person receivees antibodies from another person or animal thru injection
398
5 class of antibodies
IgA, IgD, IgE (allergic reactions), IgG (primary antibody of secondary immune response, IgM
399
when a transplant is done, the recipients body may recognize it as
foreign & set off an immune response called tissue rejection reaction
400
helper t cells
plays a supportive role in cellular immunity
401
cellular immunity
destroys pathogens inside the cell
402
humoral immunity
focuses on the pathogens outside the cells
403
immediate allergic reaction
occurs within seconds
404
fever
is beneficial, elevated body temp helps fight infection,
405
lower respiratory tract
structures inside the thoracic cavity including trachea, bronchi and lungs
406
Upper respiratory tract
structures outside of the thoracic cavity
407
nasal cavity
nasal passages filters and warms the air
408
septum, palate and cilia
septum: seperates the cavity into 2
palate: bony structure that separates the oral and nasal cavity
cilia: filters out dust and large foreign particles
409
Difference between R&L bronchi
at the carina, trachea branches into R&L bronchi, supported by c shaped rings
410
which bronchi is wider and more verticle
right bronchi is slightly wider and more verticle than L making it more likely to aspirate food
411
3 parts of pharynx
nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
412
pleural cavity
space between visceral & parietal pleurae, cavity is only a potential space, 2 membranes are normally seperated by a film of slippery pleural fluid
413
alveoli
where gas exchange occurs, deoxygenated blood flows into the aveoli through pulmonary arterioles & oxygenated blood leaves alveoli via pulmonary venules
414
larynx functions `
prevents foods & liquids from entering trachea, acts as an air passageway between pharynx & trachea & finally produces sounds
415
respiratory membrane functions
oxygens crosses the respiratory membrane/aveolar epithelium, capillary endothelium, shared basement endothelium from the aveoli into RBSc in nearby capillaries RBCS absorb oxygen, they release co2
416
diaphragm: inspiration
inspiration; diaphragm contacts, flattens and drops, pressing the abdominal organs downward and enlarging the thoracic cavity
417
diaphragm expiration
diaphragm relaxes bulging upward & presses against the base of the lungs reducing the site of the thoracic cavity
418
use of accesssory muscles
used when someone is having difficulty breathing, making exhaling an exhausting process, can be a sign of respiratory distress if using muscles
419
what is located in the medulla
inspiratory & expiratory systems
420
factors influencing breathing
oxygen
hydrogen ions
stretch
pain & emotion
irritants
421
pressure & airflow
atmospheric pressure drives respiration, when pressure within lungs drops LOWER than atmospheric pressure, air flows IN
when pressure within the lungs RISES ABOVE atmospheric pressure, air flows OUT
422
Gas exchange
exchange depends on differences in pressure, goes diffused from high to low pressure until pressure due equalizes
423
oxygen transport
most o2 forms oxyhemoglobin in the lungs, oxyhemoglobin travels to the cells
424
pneumothorax
traumatic injury( stabbing, gunshot, mva) to chest can cause air to rush into the lungs= lung collapse, air can also enter pleural space when alveoli collapse
425
blood vs urine by kidneys
blood is filtered by the kidneys, urine is a byproduct
426
pressure gradient
the existance of a pressure gradient drives glomerular formation
427
nephron
filtration unti of kidney
428
function of peritubular capillaries
pick up water & solutes reabsorbed by the renal tubules
429
intense physical exercise
can cause protein in urine bc hormones released during temporarily alter permeability of the filtration membrane
430
renal tubule consists of
1 proximal convulated tube
2 loop of henle
2.25 descending limb
2.75 ascending limb
3 distal convulated tubule
4 collecting duct
431
water, electrolytes & nutrients
are reabsorbed in the proximal convulated tubules by active & passive transport
432
aldosterone
causes the distal convulated tube to retain sodium, which leads to increased retention of water BP & blood volume increases
433
High BP
constantly causes arteries around the kidneys to marrow, weaken or hardened, reducing blood flow to kidneys. this impairs the ability to filter wastes & excess fluids, leading to damage failure of kidneys
434
glucose
is not a normal find in urine
435
atrial natiuretic peptide (ANP)
excretes NaCL & H2O which decreases blood volume & BP
436
Urinary system consists of
kidneys, ureters, urethra and urinary bladder
437
the micturition center
is located in the pons
438
urine formation
glomerular filtration
tubular reabsorption
tubular secretion
439
tubular reabsorption and secretion
1 sodium moves out, waste migrates in
2 water diffused out
3 NaCl pumped out
4 water & salt reabsorbed
5 water reabsorbed; filtrate concentrated
440
urine & water
urine is 95% water, 5% dissolved substances
441
parathyroid hormones
reabsorbs calcium and excretes phosphate & has no effect on BP & blood volume
442
ADH, antidiueretic hormone
reabsorbs water & increases BP & blood volume
443
Urination
1 stretch receptors sends impulses to spinal cord
2 spinal cord sends motor impulses to bladder
3 pons can override impulses
4 the brain sends signals to contract or relax spinctors
444
ureteres
connect kidneys to bladder
445
calculi
kidney renal stones
446
blood vessels
enter & leave through the hilum
447
renal vein
empties into the inferior vena cava
448
renal arteries
brings blood to kidney
449
blood formation
Erythropoietin (EPO) hormone produced by the
Kidneys when oxygen levels are low. Stimulates red blood cell production in red bone marrow
449
hemopoiesis
production of blood, tissues that produce blood
cells cared hemopoietic tissue, 2 types: red bone marrow & lymphatic tissues
450
red bone marrow
found in ends of long bones + flat irregular bones ; these produce all types of blood cells
451
lympathic tissue
tissue found in spleen, lymph nodes + thymus glands. supplement blood cels production
452
stem cells, RBC
proerthrocyte to reticulocyte to erythroctye
453
stem cells; granulocytes
myleoblast to progranulocyte to basophil, eosinophil & neutrophils to granulocytes
454
stem cells to agranulocytes
lymphoblast/monoblast to lymphocyte/monocyte to agranulocytes
455
granulocytes & angranulocytes
both wbc
456
stem cells; platelets
megakaryoblast to megakaryocyte to thrombocyte to platlets
457
body at work
oxygen carrying component of hemoglobin contains iron, an adequate supply for dietary iron is crucial for hemoglobin synthesis bc the blood loss
458
life cycle of RBCs
circulate 120 days before they die , break up
1- o2 levels decreased (stimulus for rbc formation)
2 kidneys secrete EPO
3 bone marrow create RBC
4 reticulocyte are released; mature into RBC
5 o2 levels increase, EPO & RBC production decrease
459
coronary circulation
this system ensures that the heart muscles gets oxygen- rich blood to fxn properly. the heart receives its own supply of blood through the coronary arteries
460
right coronary artery
supplies blood to the right atrium, right ventricle & part of the left ventricles, supports heart conduction sx
461
left coronary artery branches into 2
left anterior descending: supplies front and bottom of the left ventricle and front of septum
circumflex artery: supplies the left atrium & side back of left ventricles
462
cardiac conduction pathway
sa node
av node
bundle of HIS
bundle branches
purkinje fibers
463
factors affecting heart rate
nervous sx (para and sympathetic)
hormones
fitness levels
temperature
464
angina
chest pain from reduced blood flow to heart
465
myocardial infarction
blockage of blood flow to heart muscle and causing tissue death
466
ejection fraction
percentage of blood pumped out the ventricles with each beat, normal range 55
%- 70%
467
blood type type A
anti b antibodies
467
blood type b
b antigens, anti a antibodies
468
type AB
A&B antigens, no antibodies (universal reciptors)
469
type o
no antigens; anti a & anti b antibodies
470
Rh group
Rh + has Rh antigens
Rh- lacks the Rh antigen; Rh- individuals can develop anti- Rh antibodies if exposed to Rh+ blood
471
heart structures & wall layers- endocardium
innermost layer, smooth layer preventing blood clotting
472
heart structures & wall layers- myocardium
middle layer, made of cardiac muscle (thickest layer) does pumping
473
heart structures & wall layers- epicardium
outer most layer, covers heart surface
474
heart structures & wall layers- pericardium
sac surrounding the heart
475
blood flow through the heart
right atrium to the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle through the pulmonary valve to the lungs, blood then returns to left atrium via pulmonary veins into left ventricle through mitral valve to the aorta to the body
476
pulmonary veins
oxygenated blood to the left atrium
477
pulmonary arteries
deoxygenated blood to the lungs
478
cardiac output
amount of blood pumped by heart per minute (stroke volume x heart rate)
479
starlings law
the more the heart muscle is stretched due to increased blood volume, the stronger it contracts, increasing stroke volume
480
heart valves
tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, aortic valves prevent backflow, one way blood flow during cardiac cycle
481
cardiac cycle
one complete heart beat; diastolic : heart relaxes, chambers fill with blood
systole : heart contracts, pumping blood out
482
electrocardiogram
test that measures the hearts electrical activity, showing the sequence of atrial & ventricular contractions
483
stroke volume
ejection fraction is the percentage of blood pumped out of the ventricles with each beat, normal range 55-70%
484
vascular system
the network of blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries) that transport blood throughout the body
