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a&p 1 > a&p exam #2 > Flashcards

a&p exam #2 Flashcards

1
Q

definition of ossification

A

the formation of bone matrix

the hardening of soft tissue into bone

the process of laying down new bone material by osteoblast cells

begins 6th&7th week of embryonic development and continues until age 25

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2
Q

define osteopenia

A

a condition in which there is a lower than normal bone mass or bone mineral density

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3
Q

define osteoporosis

A

a condition in which there is a decrease in the amount & thickness of bone tissue

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4
Q

describe the steps of bone fracture

A

INFLAMMATORY STAGE: body sends special cells to injured area which causes area to become inflamed and then other cells form a hematoma around the broken bone

REPARATIVE STAGE: about a week after injury, a soft callus replaces the hematoma. over the next few weeks the callus becomes harder

REMODELING STAGE: around 6 weeks after injury, regular bone replaces hard callus.

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5
Q

dynamic movements of skeleton

A

FLEXION

EXTENTION

HYPEREXTENSION

ABDUCTION

ADDUCTION

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6
Q

types of fractures

A

TRANSVERSE FRACTURE: straight line break across bone

SPIRAL FRACTURE: spirals around bone

GREENSTICK FRACTURE: partial fracture (mostly in kids)

COMPRESSION FRACTURE: when bone gets crushed

POTTS FRACTURE: ankle fracture

DISPLACED FRACTURE: ends of bone out of alignment

EPIPHYSEAL FRACTURE: fracture that occurs where bone matrix is undergoing calcification/ chondrocytes are dying

COMMINUTED FRACTURE: bone shatters, many fragments

COLLES FRACTURE: break at distal portion of radius

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7
Q

describe the hormones that impact bone growth

A

GROWTH HORMONE: produced by pituitary gland and stimulates bone growth by stimulating protein synthesis and rate of cell division

THYROXINE: from thyroid gland, stimulates bone growth by stimulating cell metabolism & increasing rate of osteoblast activity

SEX HORMONES: stimulate osteoblasts to produce bone faster than epiphyseal cartilage expands which closes growth plates

PARATHYROID HORMONE: from parathyroid glands

CALCITONIN: from c cells of thyroid glands

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8
Q

relationship between calcitonin, calcitriol, PTH & how they maintain blood calcium levels

A

Calcitriol helps increase blood circulation levels and calcitonin helps decrease blood calcium levels.

Calcitriol participates with PTH to stimulate osteoclastic bone resorption

Calcitonin counteracts effects of PTH & Calcitriol

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9
Q

Nutritional needs and effects on bone

A

MINERALS: bones need source of calcium & phosphorus for normal growth

CALCITRIOL/VITAMIN D: essential for normal calcium & phosphorus absorption in digestive tract

VITAMIN C: required for certain enzymatic reactions in collagen synthesis, also stimulates osteoblast differentiation

VITAMIN A: stimulates osteoblast activity

VITAMIN K&B: helps with synthesis of protein in bone

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10
Q

remodeling/homeostatic mechanisms of the skeletal system

A

bone remodeling continuously recycles & renews organic 3 mineral components of bone matrix.

remodeling replaces the matrix

older mineral deposits are removed from bone & released into the circulation at the same time that circulating minerals are absorbed & deposited

involves osteoblasts and osteoclasts

regulates calcium homeostasis and repairing micro-damage to bones from everyday stress

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11
Q

functions of the skeletal system

A

SUPPORT

STORAGE OF MINERALS/LIPDS

BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION

PROTECTION

LEVERAGE

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12
Q

major cell types in bone and their functions

A

OSTEOCYTES: maintain protein & mineral content of surrounding matrix

OSTEOGENIC CELLS: maintain populations of osteoblasts $ repair fractures

OSTEOBLASTS: make & release proteins/organic components of the matrix

OSTEOCLASTS: absorbs & removes bone matrix

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13
Q

steps of endochondral ossification

A

STEP 1: mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes and form the cartilage model for bone

STEP 2: chondrocytes near center of cartilage model undergo hypertrophy & alter contents of the matrix they secrete which enables mineralization

STEP 3: chondrocytes undergo apoptosis due to decreased nutrient availability; blood vessels invade & bring osteogenic cells

STEP 4: primary ossification center forms in the diaphyseal region of periosteum, called the periosteal collar

STEP 5: secondary ossification centers develop in the epiphyseal region after birth

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14
Q

steps or intramembranous ossification

A

-begins when osteoblasts differentiate within fibrous connective tissue

-osteoblasts become entrapped by the osteoid that they secure, transforming them to osteocytes

-spongy bone and periosteum form

-compact bone forms superficially to the spongy bone

-blood vessels form the red marrow

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15
Q

cell types in bone

A

OSTEOGENIC CELLS: stem cells whose divisions produce osteoblasts

OSTEOBLASTS: immature bone cells, secrete organic compounds

OSTEOCYTES: mature bone cells, maintains bone matrix

OSTEOCLASTS: secretes acids & enzymes to dissolve bone matrix

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16
Q

sutural bone definition, shape, & example

A

a synarthrotic joint located between bones of skull. edges are interlocked together by dense fibrous connective tissue

SHAPE: small, flat & oddly shaped

EXAMPLE: found between flat bones of skull

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17
Q

bone structure of flat bone

A

one layer of spongy bone within two layers of compact bone surrounding the spongy bone

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18
Q

structure of long bone

A

spongy bone

compact bone

epiphysis (proximal and distal)

diaphysis

metaphysis

epiphyseal like

medullary cavity

yellow bone marrow

red bone marrow

endosteum

periosteum

articular cartilage

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19
Q

components of bone matrix

A

CALCIUM PHOSPHATE: 2/3 of bone weight (67%)

TYPE 1 COLLAGEN: (organic matter) 33%

calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide form hydroxyapatite

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20
Q

sesamoid bone shape & example

A

SHAPE: small, round, and flat

EXAMPLE: near joints of knees, hands, & feet
(sesamoid patellae)

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21
Q

long bone shape & example

A

SHAPE: long and slender

EXAMPLE: arm & thigh

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22
Q

flat bone shape & example

A

SHAPE: thin parallel surfaces

EXAMPLE: form roof of skull & sternum

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23
Q

short bone shape & example

A

SHAPE: box like

EXAMPLE: carpal and tarsal bones

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24
Q

irregular bone shape & example

A

SHAPE: complex shapes with flat, short, notched or ridged surfaces

EXAMPLE: pelvis & vertebrae

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25
Q

ossification vs. calcification

A

ossification specifically means the conversion of connective tissue into bone tissue (is a process of laying down new bone material by osteoblasts)

calcification means the depositing of calcium salts that build up in soft tissue, causing it to harden

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26
Q

structure of periosteum & functions

A

STRUCTURE: membrane with a fibrous outer layer and cellular inner layer

FUNCTION: isolates the bone from surrounding tissues, provides a route for the blood vessels and nerves & takes part in bone growth & repair

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27
Q

structure of endosteum & function

A

STRUCTURE: incomplete cellular layer that lines the medullary cavity. covers trabeculae of spongy bone and lines inner surfaces of central canals of compact bone. Simple flattened layer of osteogenic cells that cover bone matrix

FUNCTION: causes bone growth, repair and remodeling

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28
Q

major parts of an osteon

A

CENTRAL CANAL: contains one or more blood vessels

PERFORATING CANAL: extend perpendicular to surface (transports nutrients to bone tissue)

LAMELLAE: forms series of nested cylinders around central canal (gives bone hardness and ridgity)

CANALICULI: small duct that interconnects the lacunae of osteons (provides routes for nutrients to reach osteocytes and wastes to leave osteocytes)

LACUNAE: small cavity in bone that encases osteocytes (provide home for cells in bone)

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29
Q

bone structure of compact vs. spongy bone

A

COMPACT: relatively solid, forms sturdy protective layer that surrounds medullary cavity (wall of diaphysis)

SPONGY: open network of struts and plates that resembles latticework (in epiphyses)

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30
Q

definition of calcification

A

a process in which calcium builds up in the body causing the tissue to harden

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31
Q

major types of joints
& functions

A

SYNOVIAL JOINT: highly mobile, allow for free movement

BALL & SOCKET JOINT: allows backwards, sideways, forward and rotating movement

SADDLE JOINT: allows two degree movement

CARTILAGINOUS JOINT: allows more movement between bones than fibrous joints but less than synovial joint

HINGE JOINT: allows flexion and extension in one plane

CONDYLOID JOINT: modified ball and socket joint that allows for flexion, extension, abduction and adduction

FIBROUS JOINT: provide protection for internal organs and weight bearing stability

PIVIOT JOINT:permits rotation around single axis (ex. wrist)

AMPHIARTHROSIS: allows small amounts of mobility

PLANE JOINT: allows for gliding movement

SYNARTHROSIS: immovable joint. provides strong connection between adjacent bones

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32
Q

define ossification

A

the process by which osteoblasts produce new bone matrix.

osteoblasts make & release proteins & other organic components of the matrix.

osteoblasts also help increase local concentrates of calcium phosphate above its solubility limit which triggers deposition of calcium salts into organic matrix.

before calcium salts are deposited, the organic matrix is called osteoid

process converts osteoid to bone.

osteocytes develop from osteoblasts that have become completely surrounded by bone matrix.

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33
Q

what is osteoarthritis

A

(degenerative joint disease)

generally effects those 60+ and may be from cumulative wear and tear at joints or genetic factors affecting collagen formation

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34
Q

what is rheumatoid arthritis

A

inflammatory condition that affects more woman than men

occurs when immune response mistakenly attacks joint tissue.

when body attacks own tissue and is known as an auto immune disease

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35
Q

what is gouty arthritis

A

crystals of uric acid form within the synovial fluid of joints.

accumulation eventually interferes with movement

the cause is unknown but is age related to change in articular cartilage

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36
Q

common synovial joint accessory structures and their function

A

MENSCI: pads of fibrocartilage between the bones in joints. menisci may subdivide synovial cavity, channel flow of synovial fluid or allow variations in shapes of articular surfaces

FAT PADS: localized masses of adipose tissue covered by synovial membrane. they protect articular cartilages & act as packing material for joints.

BURSAE: provide a gliding surface and a cushion for soft tissues

LIGAMENTS: strengthen and support the joint by anchoring the bones together and preventing their separation.

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37
Q

why is the elbow joint so stable?

A

it’s extremely stable because the bony surface of the humerus & ulna interlock

a single articular capsule surround both the humeroulnar & proximal radioulnar joints

strong ligaments reinforce the articular capsule

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38
Q

gliding movement at synovial joint

A

two surfaces sliding past one another.

occurs between surface or articulating carpal bones, tarsal bones, & between clavicles & the sternum.

can occur in any direction but only slight movement rotation is prevented by capsule & associated ligament

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39
Q

angular movement at synovial joint

A

Angular movements are produced when the angle between the bones of a joint changes.

flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction and circumduction

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40
Q

flexion at synovial joint

A

movement in anterior-posterior plane that decreases angle between articulation bones

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41
Q

extension at synovial joints

A

occurs in the same plane but increases angle between articulating bones

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42
Q

major type of joints by structure

A

FIBROUS

CARTILAGINOUS

BONY: forms when fibrous of cartilaginous joints ossify

SYNOVIAL

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43
Q

basic structure of a synovial joint

A

two layer joint capsule surrounds synovial joint.

joint capsule contains inner synovial membrane & outer fibrous capsule

this membrane does not cover the articulating surfaces within joint

synovial membrane consists of areolar tissue covered by an incomplete epithelial layer

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44
Q

structure of fibrous joint

A

These joints are also called immovable joints because they do not move.

Fibrous joints have no joint cavity and are connected by fibrous connective tissue made of mainly collagen

The skull bones are connected by fibrous joints called sutures.

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45
Q

structure of cartilaginous joints

A

type of joint where the bones are entirely joined by cartilage, either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage.

These joints generally allow more movement than fibrous joints but less movement than synovial joints.

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46
Q

structural classification of synovial joints

A

HINGE: elbow

SADDLE: carpometacarpal joint

PLANAR: acromioclavicular joint

PIVIOT: atlantoaxial joint

CONDYLOID: metapophalangeal joint

BALL AND SOCKET: hip

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47
Q

definition of trochanter

A

a large proximal projection on a bone

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48
Q

4 different kind of projection bone markings

A

HEAD

FACET

CONDYLE

RAMUS

49
Q

three kind of bone markings

A

depressions

elevations

tunnels

50
Q

what are bone markings

A

points of muscle/tendon attachments that allow vessels and nerves through way and where other bones articulate

51
Q

what is the bone marking where tendons and ligaments attach & where adjacent bones articulate(joints)

A

elevations

52
Q

6 kind of depression and opening bone markings

A

MEATUS

SINUS

GROOVE

FISSURE

FORAMEN

FOSSA

53
Q

a calcified skeletal muscle is an example of

A

heterotopic bone formation

54
Q

what happens when levels of calcium ions are elevated in the blood

A

they stimulate the secretion of calcitonin hormone

55
Q

protein-crystal interactions

A

allow bone to be strong, somewhat flexible and highly resistant to shattering

56
Q

what is the most abundant cell type in bone

A

osteocytes

57
Q

what does parathyroid hormone do

A

stimulates osteoclast activity

increases rate of calcium absorption

decreases rate of calcium excretion

raised blood calcium ion levels

58
Q

what is a foramen

A

rounded passageway for passage of blood vessels/nerves

59
Q

what is formed by intramembrabous ossification

A

FLAT BONES

the roof of skull

clavicle

60
Q

what does intramembranous ossification begin with

A

differentiation of mesenchymal cells

61
Q

important steps of endocondral ossification

A

Chondrocytes enlarge and the
surrounding matrix begins to calcify.

Enlarged chondrocytes die.

Blood vessels grow around the
edges of the cartilage.

Perichondrial cells become
osteoblasts and produce a
superficial layer of bone.

Osteoblasts replace calcified
cartilage with spongy bone.

62
Q

where are osteogenic cells located

A

inner cellular layer of the periosteum

63
Q

where does secondary ossification occur

A

in the epiphyses

64
Q

cells that free calcium from bone to maintain blood calcium levels

A

osteoclasts

65
Q

what are the joints between vertebrae

A

amphiathrosis

66
Q

is a synovial membrane considered an accessory structure

A

NO

67
Q

what is the medial surface of the knee reinforced by

A

tibial collateral

68
Q

ligaments that limit the anterior/posterior movement of the tibia and maintain alignment of femoral and tobias condyles

A

cruciate

69
Q

what kind of joints are intercarpal articulations

A

gliding joint

70
Q

Syndesmosis is to ligament as
symphysis is to

A

fibrous cartilage

71
Q

Dense fibrous connective tissue is to
a suture as a periodontal ligament is to
a(n)

A

gomphosis

72
Q

definition of pronation

A

rolling the distal epiphysis of the radius over ulna

inward rotation of forearm

73
Q

A ligamentous connection such as an
antebrachial interosseous membrane is
called a

A

syndesmosis

74
Q

A joint where bones fuse together with
bone tissue is called

A

synostosis

75
Q

The intervertebral disc joint is called

A

symphysis

76
Q

Dense fibrous connective tissue is to
a suture as a periodontal ligament is to
a(n)

A

gomphosis

77
Q

which is the mature bone cell

A

osteocytes

78
Q

what is the parent of bone builder cells

A

osteogenic cells

79
Q

which bone cell is the bone builder

A

osteoblasts

80
Q

which bone cell is responsible for bone resorption

A

osteoclasts

81
Q

which bone cell is stimulated by PTH

A

osteoclasts

82
Q

which bone cell is inhibited by calcitonin

A

osteoclasts

83
Q

who is the target when calcitonin is released

A

KIDNEY

INTERSTITIAL LINING

OSTEOCLASTS

OSTEOBLASTS

84
Q

who’s the target when is PTH released

A

KIDNEY

OSTEOCLASTS

INTERSTITIAL LINING

85
Q

which movement happens when moving from standing to sitting position

A

flexion at hip and knee joint

86
Q

what movement happens when doing a full jumping jack

A

upstroke abduction at shoulder and hip

downstroke adduction at shoulder and hip

flexion and extension at knee for jumping

87
Q

which movement happens when laying flat and doing a sit up

A

flexion at hip, knee and along spine

88
Q

what movement happens when turning a door knob

A

flexion at shoulder

flexion at fingers

supination

89
Q

SYNARTHROSIS JOINTS
(nearly immobile)

A

FIBROUS
suture
gomphosis

CARTILAGINOUS
synchondrosis

BONY FUSION
synostosis

90
Q

gomphosis joints

A

fibrous connection plus insertion of alveolar processes

located between teeth and jaw

91
Q

Synchondrosis

A

interposition of cartilage plate

example: epiphyseal cartilage

92
Q

Synostosis

A

conversion of other articular form to a solid mass of bone

example: portions of skull,

bony fusion

93
Q

Amphiarthrosis
(little movement)

A

FIBROUS
syndesmosis

CARTILAGINOUS
symphysis

94
Q

syndesmosis

A

ligamentous connection

between tibia and fibula

95
Q

symphysis

A

connection by fibrocartilage pad

example: intervertebral discs

96
Q

diarthrosis
(free movement)

A

PLANES OF MOVEMENT

monaxial: movement @ one plane
ex. ankle

biaxial: movement @ 2 planes
ex. wrist

triaxial: movement in 3 planes
ex. shoulder

97
Q

diarthrosis synovial

A

Complex joint bound by joint capsule containing synovial fluid

ex. ends of long bone

98
Q

intramembranous ossification vs. endochondral ossification

A

in intramembranous ossification, bone develops directly from sheets of mesenchymal connective tissues. forms flat bones of the skull, clavicle and most cranial bones

in endochondral ossification, bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage. form all long bones

99
Q

BONES OF AXIAL SKELETON AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A

80 BONES IN AXIAL SKELETON

SKULL(8 cranial& 14 facial):
protection & structure

6 OSSICLES:
transmission of sound waves

HYOID BONE:
carries weight of tongue

THORACIC CAGE(sternum & 24 ribs) :
*protects heart and lungs)

VERTEBRAL COLUMN (24 vertebrae, sacrum & coccyx)
protects and supports spinal cord

100
Q

CRANIAL BONES

A

Frontal(1)

PARIETAL(2)

OCCIPITAL(1)

TEMPORAL(2)

SPHENOID(1)

ETHMOID(1)

8 cranial bones total

101
Q

FACIAL BONES

A

NASAL(2)

LACRIMAL (2)

INFERIOR NASAL CONCHA (2)

MAXILLA(1)

MANDIBLE(1)

VOMER(1)

ZYGOMATIC (2)

PALATINE(1)

14 FACIAL BONES TOTAL

102
Q

paranasal sinuses function

A

open into nasal cavity

lined with cells that make mucus

103
Q

NASAL COMPLEX:

A

FRONTAL BONE
frontal sinuses

ETHMOID BONE
ethmoid sinus

NASAL BONE

MAXILLA

PALATINE BONE

SPHENOID
sphenoidal sinus

SUPERIOR NASAL CONCHA

MIDDLE NASAL CONCHA

INFERIOR NASAL CONCHA

maxillary sinus

104
Q

structural differences of skull in infants vs adults

A

INFANT SKULL:
frontalle(where bone hasn’t fused together yet)
^covered by membrane to protect

ADULT SKULL:
have suture lines that show where the different skull bones have fused together.

105
Q

spinal curvatures and their functions

A

PRIMARY CURVE DEVELOPS BEFORE BIRTH
SECONDARY AFTER BIRTH

CERVICAL CURVE: secondary curve, develops as infant learns to balance weight of its head on vertebrae of neck

THORACIC CURVE: primary curve, provides room for thoracic organs

LUMBAR CURVE: secondary curve, balances weight of trunk over lower limbs

SACRAL CURVE: primary curve, provides room for abdomiopelvic organs

106
Q

VERTEBRAL REGIONS

A

CERVICAL(7) - small bodies

THORACIC(12) -thicker bodies than cervical(giraffe)

LUMBAR(5)-thickest bodies (moose)

SACRUM(5 fused)

COCCYX(4 fused)

107
Q

significance of thoracic and rib articulations

A

maintains position of vertebral column, protects heart and lungs,
attachment point for muscles involved with breathing

108
Q

APPENDICULAR SKELETON BONES

A

PELVIS

PECTORAL GIRDLE

HUMERUS

SCAPULA

CLAVICLE

CARPAL BONES

METACARPALS

PHALANX

RADIUS

ULNA

FIBULA

PATELLA

FEMUR

SACRUM

TIBIA

ILLUM

TARSALS

METATARSALS

ISCHIUM

ACROMION

CALCANEUS

109
Q

bones that form pectoral girdle and their functions

A

clavicle: increased range of motion of shoulders away from body (acromial end and sternal end)

scapula: allows full functional upper extremity movement

110
Q

bones of upper limb

A

HUMEUS:

RADIUS:

METACARPALS:

PHALANGES:

CARPALS:

111
Q

BONES OF PELVIC GIRDLE

A

ilium

ischium

pubis

The main functions of the pelvic girdle are to transfer the weight of the upper body to the lower limbs when sitting or standing, and provide attachment points for muscles that help with locomotion and posture.

112
Q

bones of lower limbs

A

TIBIA

FIBULA

TARSALS

FEMUR

The lower limb serves a vital role in locomotion, standing, and supporting our weight.

113
Q

male vs female pelvis

A

MALE: adapted to fit more massive and sturdy body architecture. narrower pelvis that’s heavier and thicker

WOMAN: wider and broader pelvis with less prominent ischial spines and helps woman through pregnancy and childbirth

114
Q

what can study of skeleton show about individual

A

changes in shape, size and density can indicate disease or trauma / unbalanced hormone and nutrients levels

115
Q

skeletal differences between man and woman

A

male skulls are heavier and bone is thicker. muscle attachment is more defined than females

females have longer torsos to accommodate the reproductive organs

116
Q

aging process on skeletal system

A

bones become more brittle and break easier due to loss of collagen, decrease in production of growth hormone, calcium & decrease in protein synthesis

117
Q

basic structure of synovial joint

A

the ends of bones are encased in smooth articular cartilage.

Together, they are protected by a joint capsule lined with a synovial membrane that produces synovial fluid.

The capsule and fluid protect the cartilage, muscles, and connective tissues.

118
Q

articulations between vertebrae of the verbretal column

A

The articulating surfaces of adjacent vertebral bodies attach to each other by intervertebral discs in addition to numerous ligaments.

a&p 1 (11 decks)

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