a&p exam #1 Flashcards
what is positive feedback and an example of it
mechanisms can only increase the effect of the stimulus-no built in slow down mechanism. just increased production…. often dependent upon external event to stop.
ex. when you cut finger positive feedback contributed to the rapid formation of a platelet plugging an injured blood vessel. inured area attracts more platelets then platelet attracts more platelets to plug the cut.
what is homeostasis and how does negative and positive feedback control it
homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively constant internal conditions
feedback mechanisms allow body to exist in state of equilibrium when changes to homeostasis cancel eachother out
what is vellus hair
fine hairs over most of body surface
“peach fuzz”
what are the parts of regulatory/homeostatic pathway
RECEPTOR: acts as sensor which is triggered by particular change (ex. temp)
CONTROL CENTER: receives info from receptor & relays directions for specific actions to restore homeostasis
EFFECTOR: reacts to commands from the control center and preforms the actions that will restore homeostasis
what is homeostasis
creation and maintenance of the ideal environment for cellular activities
(98.6 F)
(7.35 PH)
steps of skin regeneration
HOMEOSTASIS: blood clotting
INFLAMMATORY: scabbing
PROLIFERATION: fibroblasts proliferating
REMODELING: freshly healed epidermis & dermis
what are the skin pigments
melanin
carotene
hemoglobin
what are the layers of skin
EPIDERMIS: outermost layer of skin. provided waterproof barrier & created skin tone
DERMIS: beneath epidermis, contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles, & sweat glands
DEEPER SUBCUTANEOUS: made of fat & connective tissue
structure and function of skeletal system
STRUCTURE: axial skeleton (central core unit; skull, vertebrae, ribs sternum) and appendicular skeleton(bones of extremities)
FUNCTION: gives body shape, allows movement, makes blood cells, provides protection from organs
structure and function of integumentary system
STRUCTURE: epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
associated w/ glands, hair and nails
FUNCTION: body temp regulation, cell fluid maintenance, synthesis of vitamin d, detection of stimuli
structure and function of skin
STRUCTURE: skin has 3 layers. emidermis, dermis, and deeper subcutaneous tissue.
FUNCTION: largest organ that protects against germs, regulates body temp. and enables touch sensation
types of skin cancer
melanoma
basal cell
squamous cell carcinoma
how does the body protect itself from UV light
body releases melanin which absorbs UVB rays to protect other cells nearby. carotene also helps protect against harmful rays
what is acne and what causes it
when hair follicles become plugged w oil and dead skin cells, it causes acne
function of apocrine sweat glands
emotional stress causes the tubule wall to contract, expelling the fatty sweat secretion to the skin.
secretes through decapitation which entails membrane budding of the apical cytoplasm
characteristics and location of epithelial tissue
LOCATION: found in all internal and external surfaces of the body. lines body cavities and hollow organs. is the major tissue in glands
CHARACTERISTICS: polarity, cell sheets, cell junction, basement membrane, nerve innervation, lack of blood cells
characteristics and location of connective tissue proper
LOCATION: directly beneath the epidermis of the skin
CHARACTERISTICS: an abundance of intercellular matrix w/ few cells. collagen fibers, reticular fibers, elastin fibers
what are the two types of skin
THIN: 4 layers of keratinocytes (covers most the body)
THICK: 5 layers of keratinocytes(covers palms of hands and soles of feet)
B: stratum basale
S: stratum spinosum
G: stratum granulosum
L: stratum lucidum
o
C: stratum corneum
what do krause end bulbs do
detect cold
eccrine glands structure/function
STRUCTURE: simple coiled glands (smaller coils than apocrine glands)
FUNCTION: help regulate temp. of the body
insensible perspiration
-occurs from skin and respiratory tract
-no solutes are lost during this
-main source of heat loss in the body
-fluid loss by evaporation
cells found in skin & their function
KERATINOCYTES: full of protein, keratin, tough and waterproof
MELANOCYTES: makes skins pigment
LANGERHANS: prevent things from getting into skin
apocrine sweat gland structure and function
STRUCTURE: made of epithelial tissues. coiled structure in dermis and straight duct that connects this structure to surface of epidermis
FUNCTION: emotional stress causes the tubule wall to contract which expels the fatty secretion to the skin where local bacteria breaks it down into odorous fatty acids
epithelial polarity
epithelial cells are apical, lateral and sit on basement membranes
apical surfaces, lateral domains
separated by adherents and tight junctions
what is fascia?
a thin casing of connective tissue that surrounds and holds every organ, blood vessel, bone, nerve fiber, and muscle in place. layers of connective tissue that support the organs
types of fascia and where they’re found
SUPERFICIAL FASCIA: areolar and adipose tissue that separates skin from tissues and organs
DEEP FASCIA: dense irregular connective tissue arranged in sheets,surrounds organ capsules and covers bone/muscle
SUBSEROUS FASCIA: areolar tissue that separates serous membranes from deep fascia
4 basic types of tissues found in the body
connective tissue
epithelial tissue
muscle tissue
nervous tissue
sensible perspiration
occurs because of eccrine sweat glands
when body temp. rises, sympathetic nervous system stimulates the eccrine sweat glands to secrete water to the skin surface where it cools the body by evaporation
what are the functions of the integumentary system
includes the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis & is associated to glands, hair, and nails.
HELPS W/ BODY TEMP. REGULATION, CELL FLUID MAINTENANCE, SYNTHESIS OF VITAMIN D & DETECTION OF STIMULI
function of desmosomes and where they’re found
allows cells to be pulled, pushed, or moved against eachother while maintaining integrity of tissue.
acts as spot welds or rivets(keeping cells in proper alignment)
FOUND IN CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE, BLADDER TISSUE, GASTROINTESTINAL MUCOSA & EPITHELIA
fibers in connective tissue and what they do
COLLAGEN: most common type of fiber in connective tissue. flexible but strong, straight and unbranched. make up bulls of tendons and ligaments. holds connective tissue together during movement.
RETICULAR: thinner than collagen fibers, forms a lattice or network by branching. aids in stabilizing positions of cells and vessels in organs.
ELASTIC: branched wavy fiber that can stretch and return to their original shape. allows stress and recoil
mammary glands function
secrete milk
ceruminous glands location and function
protection of ear canal against physical damage and microbial invasion
eccrine sweat glands function
discharge a watery fluid onto the surface of the skin
function of tight junctions and where they’re found
don’t allow materials to pass between the cells
in areas like intestines, tight junctions force materials in the lumen(the open tubular space of the intestine) to pass through the apical surface of the calls by blocking any passage past the sides
FOUND IN EPITHELIA
apocrine sweat glands functions
secretes a thick, odorous fluid into hair follicles
structure of hair
HAIR ROOT: anchors hair into skin
HAIR BULB: expanded base of hair root
HAIR PAPILLA: connective tissue w/ capillaries & nerves surrounded by the root
HAIR SHAFT: portion of hair above surface of the sKin
MEDULLA: core of the hair shaft, has flexible soft keratin
CORTEX: surrounds the medulla, has layers of inflexible hard keratin
CUTICLE: external layer of hair, thin layer of hard keratin
function of intercalated discs and where they’re found
represent the undulating double membranes where two cells are tightly bound together by desmosomes and connected by gap junctions. allows electrical impulse conduction from cell to cell
FOUND WITHIN CARDIAC MUSCLE
what is lanugo hair
fine and silky fetal hair
eccrine sweat gland function
secretes water to the skin surface where heat is removed by evaporation. secretes water through sweat pores.
what are terminal hairs
-heavy more deeply pigmented thick hair
-can be curly
what is physiology
study of the function of anatomy of organisms and how different organisms work together from cellular to whole organism level
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
ORGAN PHYSIOLOGY
SYSTEMIC PHYSIOLOGY
PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY
what is anatomy
study of body structures, both internal and external. examination of physical parts of body that can be seen with naked eye all the way down to structure so small that only a microscope can see
GROSS ANATOMY
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
reproductive system structure and function
STRUCTURE:
woman(ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina)
men(prostate, testes, penis)
FUNCTION: to produce egg and sperm cells for reproduction
exocrine vs. endocrine glands
EXOCRINE: secrete substances into a ductal system to an epithelial surface
ENDOCRINE: secretes products directly into the blood stream
characteristics and location of nervous tissue
CHARACTERISTICS: sends and receives information, automatic response, transmits signals
LOCATION: brain, spinal cord, nerves
characteristics and location of muscle tissue
CHARACTERISTICS: contractability, elasticity, extensibility, support, protection, heat generation and blood circulation
LOCATION: hollow visceral organ walls except the heart
characteristics and location of bone
CHARACTERISTICS: support, protection, movement, mineral storage and hematopoiesis
LOCATION: throughout the body
urinary system structure and function
STRUCTURE: kidneys, renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, urethra
FUNCTION: remove waste products/medicines from the body. filters blood
sebaceous(oil) glands
discharged as sebum through the sebaceous duct connecting the gland to the hair follicle
sweat glands (sudoriferous glands)
secretes substances into an epithelial surface
digestive system structure and function
STRUCTURE:
GI tract starts at mouth> esophagus>stomach>small intestine>large intestine>anus
liver, pancreas, gallbladder
FUNCTION: help body break down and absorb food
characteristics and location of cartilage
CHARACTERISTICS: thin, avascular, flexible and resistant to compressive forces
LOCATION: where two bones meet in the body also at the ends of all bones that form joints
structure and function of respiratory system
STRUCTURE: airway, lungs, muscles of respiration
FUNCTION: helps you breathe. moves oxygen throughout body and cleans out waste gases (ex. carbon dioxide)
structure and function of lymphatic system
STRUCTURE: large network of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymphoid organs and lymphoid tissue, spleen
FUNCTION: maintain fluid levels in body tissues by removing fluids that leak out of blood vessels (filtration)
structure and function of cardiovascular system
STRUCTURE: heart, veins, arteries, capillaries
FUNCTION: delivers oxygen, nutrients, hormones and other important substances to cells and organs
endocrine system structure and function
STRUCTURE: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands
FUNCTION: releases hormones into bloodstream
nervous system structure and function
STRUCTURE: brain, spinal cord, nerves
FUNCTION: transmits information by sending signals to brain, controls movements, automatic response.
muscular system structure and function
STRUCTURE: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle
FUNCTION: contractibility, responsible for movement
epidermal growth factor
involved in cell signaling pathways that control cell division and survival
a protein made by many cells that causes cells to grow and differentiate
produced by salivary glands and duodenal glands
stimulates secretion by epithelial glands
accelerates keratinization
promote division of basal cells
themes of A&P
homeostasis
structure and function of body
levels of organization
integration of systems
functions of gap junctions and where they’re found
form passageways between cells and allow exchange of materials in the cytoplasm
found in virtually all cells in solid tissue
what do ruffini endings do
detect stretch, deformation within joints and warmth
pacinian corpuscles
sensory receptors for vibration and deep touch pressure, detects transiet pressure/high frequency
merkel cells
found right below the epidermis, cells that are close to nerve endings that receive sensation of touch
sense light touch
major membranes of body cavities
DORSAL BODY CAVITY: dura mater, arachnoid, pia matter
VENTRAL BODY CAVITY: various serous membranes
PLEURA: membrane that lines pericardial cavity(lungs)
PERICARDIUM: membrane that lines the pericardial cavity (heart)
PERITONEUM: membrane lines the peritoneal cavity, abdomino pelvic cavity and many organs
parietal vs. visceral membranes
PARIETAL: lines the body cavities (outer membrane)
VISCERAL: lines the outer part of the organs within the body cavity (inner membrane)
atomical position
arms down w/ palms facing forward
feet flat together on floor
head held straight
eyes facing forward
dorsal and ventral cavity
DORSAL: cranial(brain), vertebral(spinal cord)
VENTRAL: Thorastic(pericardial-heart) & (pleural-lungs)
Abdomiopelvic (stomach, large/small intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen)
Pelvic( bladder, reproductive, terminal end of large intestine)
intrinsic regulation vs. extrinsic regulation
INTRINSIC: when organs are able to maintain homeostasis in their own (ex. heart controlling heart rate)
EXTRINSIC: organs are controlled by outside system such as endocrine or nervous system.
extrinsic systems are capable of overriding intrinsic systems
what is negative feedback and an example
mechanisms are self regulating. they slow down or speed up metabolic pathways in response to stimulus, and their response ends up negating or removing the effect of the stimulus which then stops feedback response.
EX. BODY TEMP INCREASES> SWEATING ACTIVATED> BODY TEMP DECREASES
relationship of form/function a&p
form: how the (body) is put together-bones, muscles, tendons and ligaments
Then onto the organ structure, down to the cellular level.
Function: how (the body) works
What does it do? Ex. Structure of an organ- the largest in the human body epidermis(skin).
Function regulates body temperature, expands to allow body movement, cools the body temperature, houses nerve endings, enabling to feel pressure or pain.
levels of organization
cell
tissue
organ
organ system
organism
ABCDE of skin cancer
A: asymmetry
B:border
C: color
D: diameter
E: evolving
Types of burns
1ST DEGREE: (superficial burn)
-only effect epidermis
2ND DEGREE: (partial thickeness)
-epidermis and part of dermis
3RD DEGREE:(full thickness)
-destroyes epidermis and dermis
how does skin respond to injury and repair itself
Red blood cells help create collagen fibers.
The wound starts to fill in with new tissue, called granulation tissue.
New skin begins to form over this tissue. As the wound heals, the edges pull inward and the wound gets smaller.
how are nails formed:
Nails start in the nail root
When cells at the root of the nail grow, the new nail cells push out the old nail cells.
These old cells flatten and harden, thanks to keratin, a protein made by these cells.
The newly formed nail then slides along the nail bed, the flat surface under your nails.
how is hair produced
Hair grows by forming new cells at the base of the root. These cells multiply to form a rod of tissue in the skin. The rods of cells move upward through the skin as new cells form beneath them. As they move up, they’re cut off from their supply of nourishment and start to form a hard protein called keratin.
how does cartilage grow interstitially
In interstitial growth, chondrocytes secrete new matrix within the cartilage and this causes it to grow in length.
formed elements in blood
erythrocytes (red blood cells)
leukocytes (white blood cells)
thrombocytes (platelets)
Merocrine Mode of Secretion
Exocytosis: cell remains intact and continuously secretes the cellular secretion
Sweat Glands: eccrine, apocrine
Aprocrine Mode of Secretion
apical portion pinches off and leaves duct
mammary glands
Holocrine Mode of Secretion
cell bursts; death
sebaceous glands: hair follicles
