A & P Flashcards
Anatomic Position
Body is erect, feet are slightly apart, head is held high, and palms of hands are facing forward.
Superior
Above
Inferior
Below
Anterior
Facing forward
Posterior
Toward the back
Medial
Toward the midline
Lateral
away from the midline or toward the sides
Proximal
Closer to the point of attachment (limb)
Distal
farther away from the point of attachment (limbs)
Histology
Study of tissues
What is a tissue?
Group of cells that act together to perform specific functions
What are the four fundamental tissues?
Epithelial, Connective, muscle, and nerve
What is the epithelia tissues job?
Epithelia cells cover, line, and protect the body and its internal organs.
What is the connective tissues job?
It’s the framework of the body, providing support and structure for the organs.
Nerve tissue is composed of neurons and connective tissue cells called?
Neuroglia
This tissue has the ability to contract or shorten
Muscle tissue
What are the two classifications of muscle tissue?
Voluntary muscle (skeletal muscles) or Involuntary muscle (Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle tissue).
Define a Cell.
Basic unit of life and building block of tissues and orgnas.
What does the nucleus contain and for what?
Contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribosomes for protein synthesis.
Why is mitosis needed, what happens during this process, and where does it occur?
Needed for growth and repair. During this process DNA is duplicated and distributed evenly to 2 daughter cells. It takes place in the gonads. (Mi-TWO-sis)
What happens during meiosis?
The chromosome number is cut in half (46 to 23). So when the egg and the sperm unite in fertilization, the zygote will have the correct number of chromosomes.
The largest organ of the body is?
Skin
What are the two layers of the skin called? and what do they consist of?
Epidermis - Outermost protective layer made of dead, keratinized epithelial cells.
Dermis - Underlying layer of connective tissue w/blood cells & vessels, nerve endings, hair follicles, and glands.
What are the layers of the epidermis? (outer to inner)
- Stratum corneum
- Stratum lucidum
- Stratum granulosum
- Stratum germinativum (includes Stratum basale & stratum spinosum)
What layer of the skin does mitosis occur?
Stratum germinativum (includes stratum basale & stratum spinosum)
What kind of protein pigment do epithelia cells contain and what is its role?
Melanin; protects against radiation from the sun.
The most widely distributed sweat gland that regulates temperature by releasing a watery secretion that evaporates from the surface of the skin.
Eccrine
Sweat gland mainly in the armpits and groin display what kind of secretion?
Apocrine
This secretion contains bits of cytoplasm from the secreting cells. This cells debris attracts bacteria, and the presence of this bacteria on the skin results in body odor.
Apocrine secretion
This gland releases an oily secretion (sebum) through the hair follicles that lubricates the skin and prevents drying.
Sebaceous Gland
By what kind of secretion is sebum produced?
Holocrine secretion
What glands are susceptible to becoming clogged and attracting bacteria, particularly at adolescents?
Sebaceous gland
What are the appendages of the skin? and what protein are they composed of?
Hair & nails composed of keratin.
What does the body framework consist of?
Bone, cartilage, ligaments, and joints.
Functions of the skeletal system?
- Support
- Movement
- Blood cell formation (hemopoiesis)
- Protection of internal organs
- detoxification
- Provision for muscle attachment
- mineral storage (calcium & phosphorus)
What kind of bone has an irregular epiphysis at each end, composed of mainly spongy (cancellous) bone, and a shaft or diaphysis, composed of mainly compact bone?
Long bone
What are the cells that form compact bone called?
Osteoblasts
What does the axial skeleton consist of?
Skull, vertebral column, 12 pairs of ribs, and sternum
How many bones does the skull have?
When including the 6 paired bones of the (ossicles) of the ear, the skull is comprised of 28 bones (14 facial & 14 cranial vault bones)
Name the facial bones
- 2 nasal
- 2 maxillary
- 2 zygomatic
- 1 mandible
- 2 palatine
- 1 vomer
- 2 lacrimal
- 2 inferior nasal conchae
Name the bones of the cranium
- occipital
- frontal
- ethmoid
- sphenoid
- 2 parietal
- temporal
Name the ossicles of the ear
- malleus
- incus
- stapes
Name the 5 sections of the vertebral column and the number of vertebrae in each section.
Cervical - 7 Thoracic - 12 Lumbar - 5 sacral - 5 Coccygeal - 1 (tailbone)
Appendicular skeleton consist of
The girdles & limbs
This portion of the appendicular skeleton consist of the pectoral or shoulder girdles, clavicle and scapula, and upper extremity
Upper portion (lower portion is the rest of the body)
What are the bones of the arm?
Humerus, radius, unla, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
The pelvic girdle consists of?
- Fused ilium
- Ischium
- Pubis
What are the bones of the lower extremity?
- Femur (thigh)
- Patella (knee cap)
- Tibia
- Fibula
- tarsals (ankle)
- metatarsals (foot)
- Phalanges
Muscles produce movement by?
Contracting in response to nervous stimulation
The sliding together of actin and myosin filaments within the muscle cell or fiber produce what?
Muscle contractions
Each muscle cell consists of myofibrils, which in turn are made up of smaller units called?
Sacromeres
what must be present in order for a muscle cell to contract?
Calcium & Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Nervous stimulation from the motor neurons causes the release of ______ _____ from the __________ ________.
Calcium ions; sarcoplasmic reticulum
Calcium ions attach to the inhibitory proteins on the _____ filaments within the cell, moving them aside so that cross bridges can form between actin and ______ filaments.
Actin; myosin
the muscle that executes a given movement is the?
Prime mover
The muscle that produces opposite movement is the?
Antagonist
What other type of muscle may work with the “prime mover”?
Synergists
Muscle that reduces the angle at the joint?
Flexor
Muscle that increases the angle at the joint?
Extensor
Abductor muscle does what?
Draw limb away from midline
Adductor muscle does what?
Return limb back toward the body
what system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and the nerves?
The nervous system
What the vital system allow us to do?
Perceive changes that take place in our external and internal environments and to respond to those changes (hearing, smelling, seeing, tasting, touching)
The main parts of a neuron are?
- Cell body
- axon
- dendrites
What do dendrites of a neuron do?
Transmit impulse toward the cell body
What do axons of a neuron do?
Transmit impulse away from cell body
What nervous system is compromised of the spinal cord and brain?
Central nervous system (CNS)
What nervous system is compromised of all other neurons in the body?
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Sensory (afferent) neurons vs. Motor (efferent) neuron function
Afferent is toward the CNS and efferent is away from the CNS toward “effector” organs like the muscles, glands, and digestive organs.
What part of the brain is associated with movement and sensory input?
cerebrum
What part of the brain is responsible for muscle coordination?
Cerebellum
What part of the brain controls vital functions such as respiration and heart rate?
Medulla oblongata
Approximately how long is the spinal cord? and extends from the base of the skull to where?
18 inches. extends to the 1st or 2nd lumbar vertebra
How many spinal nerves exit the spinal cord?
31 pairs
endocrine system plays an important role in _____ and ________ _______.
growth: sexual maturation
Chemical messengers that control growth, differentiation, and metabolism of specific target cells.
Hormones
Two major groups of hormones?
Steroid and nonsteroid
Which type of hormone enter the target cells and have a direct effect on the DNA of the nucleus?
Steroids
Nonsteroid hormones
- most are protein hormones
- remain at cell surface and act through a second messenger called adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
what is the main function of Endocrine glands?
produce Hormones
Cortisol from the adrenal cortex does what?
- reduces inflammation
- raises blood sugar
- inhibits the release of histamine
The pituitary gland (master gland) is attached to the hypothalamus by?
infundibulum
The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is called?
Adenohypophysis
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland is called?
Neurohypophysis
Hormones of the adenohypophysis are called? and why?
Tropic hormones b/c they act mainly on endocrine glands
What are the hormones made by the adenohypophysis?
- Somatotropin hormone (STH) or growth hormone (GH)
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
What are the hormone released by the neurohypophysis?
- Oxytocin (labor hormone)
- Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
The thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, and gonads are all a part of what type of gland?
Endocrine glands
Whole blood consists of? (percentages)
55% plasma and 45% formed elements
What are the formed elements of blood? and where are they produced from?
-erythrocytes (RBC)
-leukocytes (WBC)
-plasma
Produced from stem cells in red bone marrow.
Erythrocytes are modified for transport of _____. Most of this ____ is bound to the pigmented protein _______.
Oxygen; oxygen; hemoglobin
These cells are active in phagocytosis (neutrophils and monocytes) and antibody formation (lymphocytes).
WBC
Platelets are active in the process of?
Blood clotting
What serves as a transport of oxygen and nutrients to the cell and carries away carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes?
Blood
Plasma contains?
10% proteins, ions, nutrients, waste products and hormones, which are dissolved or suspended in water.
The heart send blood to the lungs for oxygenation through the _____ circuit and the remainder of the body through the ______ circuit.
Pulmonary; systemic
Blood is received by the _____ and is pumped into circulation by the ________.
Atria; ventricles
Valves between the atria and the ventricles are?
Tricuspid on the right and bicuspid on the left.
What valves are found at the entrances of the pulmonary trunk and the aorta?
Semilunar
What arteries supply the heart muscle with blood?
Coronary arteries
Blood drains from the myocardium directly into the right atrium through the?
Coronary sinus
The heart has an intrinsic beat initiated by the?
Sinoatrial node
Electrocardiogram (ECG) measures?
electrical activity along the conduction system through the myocardium
Smallest vessel is the?
capillaries
What occurs in the capillaries?
Exchange of water, nutrients, and waste products takes place between the blood and surrounding tissues.
smallest arteries are called?
arterioles
The _____ and ______ venae cavae are the larger veins that empty into the right atrium of the heart.
Superior; inferior
Vasoconstriction and vasodilation result from?
Contraction & relaxation of smooth muscle in arterial walls
The walls of _______ are thick and elastic and carry blood under high pressure.
Arteries
This system includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs with their alveoli, diaphragm, and muscles surrounding the ribs.
Respiratory system
External respiration
exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood through the alveoli.
Internal respiration
exchange of gases between blood and body cells
Cilia function?
trap or keep debris and foreign substances from entering lungs.
Carbon dioxide is the regulator of?
blood pH
Most carbon dioxide is converted into bicarbonate ions by what within red blood cells?
Carbonic anhydrase
This system consists of mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.
Alimentary canal or digestive tube
Accessory organs of digestion include?
- liver
- pancreas
- gallbladder
Mastication is?
chewing
Saliva contains an enzyme called?
amylase (starts digestion)
the digestive tract has four main layers (inner to outer)
- mucous membrane
- submucous layer
- muscular layer
- serous layer
What acid breaks down food in the stomach?
Hydrolic acid
Soupy substance the stomach turns a bolus into?
chyme
Digestion and absorption of food occurs where?
small intestine
This organ contributes water to dilute the chyme and bicarbonate ions to neutralize acid from the stomach.
pancreas
What are the small intestines 3 major regions?
- duodenum
- jejunum
- ileum
What is absorbed directly into the blood from the small intestines?
Amino acids and simple sugars from proteins and carbohydrates
Most of what is absorbed into the lymph by lacteals then added to the bloodstream?
Fats
Small fingerlike projections that increase the surface area of the intestinal wall?
Villi
Role of the large intestine?
Reabsorbs water and stores and eliminates undigested food. There are also abundant bacteria and intestinal flora here
What are the 5 portions of the large intestine?
- ascending colon
- transverse colon
- descending colon
- sigmoid colon
- rectum
Urinary system consists of what structures?
- 2 kidneys
- 2 ureters
- urinary bladder
- urethra
Tubes that transport urine to the urinary bladder, where urine is stored before urination through the urethra to the outside.
Ureters
The functional units of the kidney are the?
Nephrons
Role of nephrons
Filter waste material out of blood brought to the kidney by the renal artery.
Where does the actual filtration process occur?
Through the glomerulus in the bowman’s capsule of the nephron.
As the glomerular filtrate passes through the nephron, components needed by the body, such as _____, _______, and ______ leave the nephron by _________ and reenter the blood.
Water; glucose; ions; diffusion
Where is water reabsorbed in the urinary system?
at the tubules of the nephron
The final product produced by the millions of nephrons per kidney is?
Urine
What are the two functions of the male and female sex organs?
- productions of gametes (sex cells)
- Production of hormones
What develops within the seminiferous tubules of each testis?
Spermatozoa
The interstitial cells between the seminiferous tubules produce?
Testosterone
This male hormone influences sperm cell development and also produces male secondary sex characteristics such as increased facial hair and body hair as well as voice deepening.
Testosterone
Where is sperm stored once it’s produced?
Epididymis of each testis
During ejaculation, the pathway for the sperm includes..
- Vas deferens
- ejaculatory duct
- urethra
What glands are a part of the ejaculatory pathway that produce semen?
- Seminal vesicle
- Prostate gland
- bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland
What two hormones control testicular activity? and what do they specifically control?
- FSH regulates sperm production
- Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) or LH stimulates the interstitial cells to produce testosterone
What does FSH influence in women?
Ripen of several eggs within the ovarian follicles in the ovary
Ovarian follicles produce what that initiates the preparation of the endometrium of the uterus for pregnancy?
Estrogen
At approximately day 14 of the cycle, a surge of ____ is released from the ______, which stimulates ovulation and the conversion of the follicle to the ______ _______.
LH; Pituitary; corpus luteum
What hormones does the corpus luteum secrete?
Progesterone & estrogen
If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum remains?
functional
if fertilization doesn’t occur, the corpus luteum…..?
Degenerates and menstruation begins
where does the egg end up after ovulation?
Oviduct or fallopian tube
If fertilization occurs, it occurs when the egg is where?
in the oviduct
A fertilized egg or zygote travels to the uterus and implants itself within the?
endometrium
In the uterus, the developing embryo is nourished by the______, which is formed by_____ and_____ tissues.
Placenta; maternal; embryonic
During pregnancy, hormones from the placenta maintain the__________ and prepare the ______ glands for breast milk.
Endometrium; mammary
