Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

A&P 2 > A&P 2 Exam 1 > Flashcards

A&P 2 Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is blood?

A

A liquid connective tissue that is composed of plasma and formed elements.
Blood is also a colloid because of how much is mixed into the substance.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is plasma?

A

92% water.
7% plasma proteins.
1% dissolved ions or molecules.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What are the functions of blood?

A

Transportation, Regulation, and Protection.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What role does transportation play? What are the plasma proteins and their functions?

A

Transports key elements and essential substances throughout the body.

Albumins (58%) - act as transport proteins for lipids and hormones and exerts the greatest osmotic pressure.

Globulins (37%) - transports water insoluble molecules and hormones.

Fibrinogen (4) - contributes to coagulation. Polymerized into insoluble fibrin strands

Reg. Proteins (1%) - includes enzymes and hormones.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What is fluid exchanged between?

A

Interstitial fluid and blood.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is the rough blood percentage in the human body?

A

8%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What does blood consist of?

A

55% plasma.
45% formed elements.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What is a “buffy coat” in centrifuged blood?

A

WBC’s and Platelets.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Plasma consists of…

A

92% water.
8% formed elements and nutrients.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What is an hematocrit? What is the clinical definition for hematocrit levels?

A

Percentage of total blood volume, or whole blood, of RBC’s.

% of erythrocytes (RBC’S)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Why do adult males possess higher hematocrit levels? What are the percentages? What is the difference between anemia and polycythemia?

A

Testosterone that stimulates erythropoietin.

Adult males = 42-56%
Adult females = 38-46%

Anemia indicates a significant drop in hematocrit levels.
Polycythemia indicates an abnormally high percentage of hematocrit levels.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What is hemopoiesis? What do hemocytoblasts give rise to? Where is erythropoietin produced? Where is thrombopoietin produced? What do cytokines do?

A

Production of formed elements.

Hemocytoblasts give rise to a pluripotent stem cell that produces the myeloid and lymphoid stem lines.

The myeloid stem cells give rise to RBC’s, platelets, and WBC’s, except for lymphocytes.
Lymphoid stem cells give rise to lymphocytes.

EPO is produced in the kidneys, slightly in liver, and increases the number of RBC precursors. It is also stimulated by testosterone.

Thrombopoietin is produced by the liver and stimulates the production of platelets from MEGAKARYOCYTES.

Cytokines stimulate WBC formation.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What is the shape of RBC’s? What do they contain? What is PCV? What does the hemoglobin contain and why does it relate to RBC’s?

A

Biconcave discs.

An oxygen-carrying protein called hemoglobin.

Packed cell volume.

Hemoglobin contains oxygen AND CO2. Contains a four globin that is bound with CO2.
Contains a protein called HEME, which is converted to Macrophages and green pigment, then converted to biliverdin that possesses a yellow pigment, and finally bilirubin that shortly becomes bile or waste product, which is stored in the gallbladder and processed in the liver.

It relates to RBC’s because they contain hemoglobin and without the nucleus, this allows for RBC’s to squeeze tight into areas with little-to-no room.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What is the life cycle of RBC’s? What destroys them? What is transferrin and what is its function? What is urobilinogen, urobilin, and sterocoblin? What is erythropoiesis and how does it connect to this?

A

Max span of 120 days.

Macrophages + wear and tear throughout the capillaries.
Ia destroyed in the spleen and liver.

Transferrin is associated with the iron in the heme portion.
It carries this product to the red bone marrow and used for hemoglobin synthesis.

Urobilinogen is produced from bilirubin in the large intestine and is absorbed back into the blood.
Urobilin is converted from urobilinogen and excreted in the urine.
Stercoblin is the process of fully eliminating urobilinogen.

Erythropoiesis is the process of RBC formation, which also occurs in red bone marrow.
Erythropoiesis is connected by knowing the beginning process of RBC’s, to the understanding of how they are fully processed as time passes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What is a proerythroblast? What is a reticulocyte? What is hypoxia? What are agglutinogens and agglutinins?

A

A proeythroblast is the process of dividing the RBC’s several times.

A reticulocyte is formed from this and enters the bloodstream. They develop into erythrocytes in a couple days after leaving the red bone marrow.

Hypoxia is the stimulus of erythropoiesis. Hypoxia is stimulates the kidneys to produce EPO.

-ogens = antigens.
-nins = antibodies.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What is in the main function of protection? What are the 5 leukocyte types and two classes? Where are most leukocytes located? What is emigration? What is chemotaxis? What are some WBC’s active in?

A

WBC’s (leukocytes) that combat inflammation and infection. possess a nucleus, but not hemoglobin

Granular - neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
Agranular - lymphocytes and monocytes.

Some in blood stream, but mostly in tissue.

Emigration is the concept of WBC’s leaving the blood stream.

Chemotaxis is the process of chemical attraction of WBC’s to a diseased or injured site.

Phagocytosis.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What are PMN’s and what are they based off? What are the most numerous leukocytes? Which is Bilobed? Which is C-shaped? Where do B and T cells reside and what are their function?

A

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes and they are based off the straining of granules.

Neutrophils.

Eosinophils.

Monocytes.

Lymphocytes.
T-cells attack infected body cells and are responsible for the rejection of transplanted organs.
B-cells are effective in destroying bacteria and inactivating their toxins. Also, they are responsible for allergy and transfusion reactions.

18
Q

Difference between leukocytosis and leukopenia? What is the function of a platelet? What are megakaryoblasts and -cytes? What is hemostasis and its summarized process? What is prostacyclin?

A

Lcytosis refers to increased WBC’s.
Lpenia refers to decreased WBC’s.

  • reduced blood loss from damaged vessels.
  • no nucleus.
    -life span is 5-9 days.

Megakaryoblasts are developed from myeloid stem cells and transform into megakaryocytes.
-Cytes fragment and are turned into thrombocytes.

Hemostasis is the sequence of events that stop bleeding from a damaged vessel.

-Vascular spasm that involves smooth muscle contracting to reduce blood loss.
-Platelet plug formation that involves the clumping of platelets.
-Blood clotting that consist of a network of insoluble fibers working together to clot the area. (insoluble fibrin)

Prostacylin is the coat of smooth, endothelial tissue.

19
Q

What are the three cascade of reactions from coagulation? What is prothrombinase? What is thrombosis and embolus? What is hemophilia, thrombocytopenia, and hypercoagulation?

A

-Formation of prothrombinase.
-Conversion of prothrombin into thrombin.
-Conversion of soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin.

Prothrombinase is responsible for the conversion of prothrombin and thrombin.

Thrombosis is clotting in an unbroken blood vessel.
Embolus is a sudden blockage in the artery by debris or bubbles of air.

Hemophilia are bleeding disorders.
Thrombocytopenia is platelet deficiency.
Hypercoagulation is an increased tendency to clot and can lead to thrombus or a pulmonary embolism.

20
Q

Where is the heart located? What is the base and apex of the heart? How large is the heart?

A

In the mediastinum; between the lungs; in the thoracic cavity.

The base is a wide, superior portion of the heart where large blood vessels attach.

The apex is the tapered inferior end of the heart and it tilts to the left side of the human body.

The heart is generally the size of a fist. 2/3 of the heart’s mass is to the left of the midline.

21
Q

What is the pericardium? Location? What is included in the pericardium?

A

Double-walled sac that encloses the heart.

Anchored to the diaphragm inferiorly and to the sternum anteriorly.

  • Fibrous pericardium is the outer wall that is not attached to the heart.
  • Serous pericardium has two layers, which are the parietal layer and visceral layer (epicardium).
  • Parietal layer lines the fibrous pericardium and the visceral layer is the cover for the heart’s surface.
    -Pericardial cavity is the space between the parietal and visceral layers of the serous pericardium and is filled with 5-30 mL of pericardial fluid.
  • Pericardial fluid (serous fluid) allows the heart to move without friction and is secreted in the pericardial cavity.
    -Pericarditis is described as painful inflammation of the membranes.
22
Q

What is the epicardium? Endocardium? Myocardium? What is the fibrous skeleton of the heart?

A

-Epicardium (external layer) is the visceral layer of the serous pericardium and consists of adipose tissue and coronary blood vessels. Gives the heart a smooth texture.
-Endocardium (inner layer) is the smooth inner lining of the heart and blood vessels; covers the valve surfaces in endothelial tissue.
- Myocardium (middle layer) is the layer of cardiac muscle and possesses muscle spirals around the heart that produce a wringing motion. Possesses intercalated discs and branching fibers that are involuntarily moving.
- Fibrous skeleton is the framework for collagenous and elastic fibers; provides the structural support; home to the electrical insulation between the atria and ventricles.

23
Q

What are the four chambers? Which is superior and/or inferior? What is/are the sulci of the heart? What do they contain?

A
  • R atrium
  • R ventricle
  • L atrium
    -L ventricle

Atria are the superior portion and the ventricles are inferior.

Grooves on the outside of the heart that contain coronary blood vessels and adipose.
-Coronary sulcus is the “crown” between the atria and ventricles.
-Anterior/Posterior interventricular sulci between the ventricles.

24
Q

Which chambers carry deoxygenated blood? Oxygenated? How does blood enter the right atrium? What is the interatrial septum and what was previously in this area?

A

-RA and RV carry deoxygenated.
-LA and LV carry oxygenated.

Through the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus, and fossa ovalis.

-Interatrial septum divides the right and left atria and consists of the fossa ovalis.
-Previously consisted of the foramen ovale.

25
Q

Which valve is used during the passing of blood between the right atria and right ventricle? What lies inside the atrium as rough, muscular ridges? What does the right ventricle form?

A

Tricuspid valve.

Pectinate muscles.

Anterior (sternocostal) surface of the heart.

26
Q

What does the tricuspid valve connect to and which structure/s are THEY connected to? What is the interventricular septum? Where does blood leave on its path to the lungs?

A

-Chordae tendinae, which are connected to papillary muscles that project off the heart wall.
-These cords and muscles prevent the tricuspid valve from turning inside out.

The IV septum separates the two ventricles structurally and functionally; (contract synonymously, but one generates more force.)

Through the PSV, into the pulmonary trunk, and then into the right and left pulmonary arteries where the blood travels to the lungs to become oxygenated.

27
Q

Which chamber is the thickest and largest of the heart? What chamber receives blood from the lungs through four pulmonary veins? What valve is now available to use? What valve prolapse happens in 6% of the U.S. population?

A

Left ventricle.

Left atrium.

Mitral (bicuspid) valve.

Mitral valve prolapse.

28
Q

What forms the apex of the heart? Which valve opens once more for oxygenated blood to be supplied to the body? Where does this blood cross?

A

Left ventricle.

Tricuspid valve. (aortic semilunar valve)

Ascending aorta, arch of aorta, and descending aorta.

29
Q

What directly stems from the ascending aorta before it branches from the circumflex branch and anterior interventricular branch?

A

Right and left coronary arteries.

30
Q

What is the difference in myocardial thickness between the two ventricles and why? What are the differences between the pulmonary and systemic circuits?

A

The left ventricle is primarily surrounded by heart muscle, unlike the right ventricle. This is because the left ventricle requires more force to pump blood through the systemic circuit.

The pulmonary circuit takes blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the left atrium.

The systemic circuit takes blood from the left ventricles and transports it to the body tissues and back to the right atrium.

31
Q

What is the term for when blood flows into and out of heart muscle? What lies within this process? What is the advantage of anastomoses?

A

Coronary circulation.

-Left and right coronary arteries.
-Anterior IV branch.
-Circumflex branch.
-Right marginal branch.
-Poster IV branch.
-Small cardiac vein.
-Middle cardiac vein.
-Great cardiac vein.
-Coronary capillaries.
-Coronary sinus.

Anastomoses provide alternate route or collateral circuits. (protection from complete blockage)

32
Q

Describe each function in coronary circulation.

A
  • Left CA branches off the ascending aorta.
  • Anterior IV branch supplies blood to both ventricles and anterior 2/3 of the IV septum.
  • Circumflex branch passes around left side of heart in coronary sulcus; *supplies the left atrium and poster wall of left ventricle.
  • Right CA branches off the ascending aorta; *supplies right atrium and SA node.
  • Right marginal branch supplies the right atrium and right ventricle laterally.
  • Posterior IV branch supplies the posterior walls of ventricles.
  • Small cardiac vein, which is located in the coronary sinus, drains the right atrium and right ventricle.

-Middle cardiac vein, which is located on the posterior IV sulcus, drains the area supplied by the posterior IV branch of the right CA.

-Great cardiac vein, which is the principal vein of the coronary and lies within the posterior IV sulcus, drains the area supplied by the left CA.

33
Q

Describe the cardiac conduction system.

A
  • SA node fires.
  • Excitation spreads through the atrial myocardium. Propagates through atria by gap junctions and then atria contracts.
  • Atrioventricular node fires in interatrial septum.
  • Excitation spreads does AV bundle “Bundle of HIS”. This part of the conduction system is the only site where action potentials can conduct from the atria to the ventricles due to fibrous skeleton.
  • Enters right and left bundle branches, which extend through the IV septum toward the apex.
  • Subendocardial conducting network distributes excitation through ventricular myocardium (purkinje fibers). Ventricles contract.
  • SA node then acts as natural pacemaker.
34
Q

How is cardiac output calculated and why is important?

A

Stroke volume * Heart rate.

It is important because it determines the amount of blood that is circulating through your body’s system.

35
Q

What is an ECG? What are the components of an ECG? What does each one consist of?

A
  • Electrocardiogram, which records the number of action potentials.
  • P waves: consist of atrial depolarization.
  • QRS complex: ventricular depolarization that trumps atrial repolarization.
  • T waves: ventricular repolarization.
  • P-Q intervals
  • S-T intervals
  • Q-T intervals
36
Q

What are the sounds of the heart and what do they indicate?

A
  • Lubb and dubb
  • Lubb indicates the blood hitting the AV valves.
  • Dubb indicates the blood hitting against the semilunar valves.
37
Q

What are cardiomyocytes? What is the purpose of intercalated discs? What is cardiac muscle tissue made of?

A
  • Striated, short, thick, branched cells.
  • To join cardiomyocytes end-to-end with interdigitating folds, gap junctions, and electrical junctions.
  • Cardiac muscle tissue is made of auto-rhythmic fibers that are self excitable and contractile fibers.
38
Q

What is the difference between systole and diastole? When do valves close during each process?

A
  • Systole is the period of contraction during the cardiac cycle.
  • Diastole is the period of relaxation.
39
Q

What is the difference between depolarization and repolarization?

A
  • Depolarization is the electrical change from resting membrane potential to a positive value.
  • Repolarization is the electrical change from resting membrane potential to a negative value.
40
Q

Protein network of a blood clot is formed by…

A

A fibrinogen polymer!

A&P 2 (4 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions