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Pre-Pharm - iPad > A&P 17: Blood > Flashcards

A&P 17: Blood Flashcards

0
Q

Hematocrit

A

Percentage of erythrocytes in the total volume of a blood sample

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1
Q

Buffy coat

A

Thin, whitish layer present at the erythrocyte-plasma junction when blood is centrifuged; made of leukocytes & platelets

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2
Q

Plasma

A

Straw-colored, sticky fluid; mostly water (90%) but has > 100 different dissolved solutes (nutrients, gases, hormones, wastes & products of cell activities, proteins, & inorganic ions/electrolytes)

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3
Q

Albumin

A

Accounts for 60% of plasma protein; acts as a carrier to shuttle certain molecules through the circulation; important blood buffer; major blood protein contributing to plasma osmotic pressure (pressure that helps keep water in the bloodstream)

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4
Q

Formed elements

A

Erythrocytes, leukocytes, & platelets

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5
Q

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

A

Small cells shaped like biconcave discs

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6
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Protein that makes red blood cells

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7
Q

Heme

A

Red pigment that binds to the protein globin

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8
Q

Globulin

A

Protein consisting of 4 polypeptide chains (2 alpha, 2 beta), each binding a ring-like heme group

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9
Q

Oxyhemoglobin

A

What hemoglobin is called when oxygen binds to iron; assumes 3D shape & becomes ruby red

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10
Q

Deoxyhemoglobin

A

Reduced hemoglobin; oxygen detaches from hemoglobin, hemoglobin resumes its former shape, & becomes dark red

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11
Q

Carbaminohemoglobin

A

20% of carbon dioxide transported in the blood combines with hemoglobin but binds to globin’s amino acids rather than to the heme group; formation of this occurs more readily when hemoglobin is in the reduced state (dissociated from oxygen)

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12
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

Blood cell formation

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13
Q

Red bone marrow

A

Where hematopoiesis occurs; composed largely of a soft network of reticular connective tissue bordering on wide blood capillaries (blood sinusoids)

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14
Q

Hematopoietic stem cell

A

Hematocytoblast; all formed elements arise from this undifferentiated precursor cells residing in red blood marrow

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15
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

Erythrocyte production

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16
Q

Myeloid stem cell

A

Erythropoiesis begins when this cell transforms into a proerythroblast

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17
Q

Proerythroblast

A

A myeloid stem cell transforms into this committed cell that gives rise to basophilic erythroblasts

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18
Q

Basophilic erythroblasts

A

Cell that produces huge number of ribosomes & transforms into a polychromatic erythroblast & then an orthochromatic erythroblast

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19
Q

Polychromatic erythroblast

A

Develops from a basophilic erythroblast; develops into an orthochromatic erythroblast

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20
Q

Orthochromatic erythroblast

A

Develops from a polychromatic erythroblast; when it has accumulated most of its hemoglobin, it ejects most of its organelles, its nucleus disintegrates & pinches off, which allows the cell to collapse inward & eventually assume the biconcave shape

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21
Q

Reticulocyte

A

Young erythrocyte; named because it still contains a scant reticulum of clumped ribosomes

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22
Q

Reticulocyte counts

A

Provide a rough index of the rate of RBC formation

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23
Q

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A

Glycoprotein hormone, stimulates the formation of erythrocytes

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24
Q

Ferritin & hemosiderin

A

Since free iron ions (Fe2+, Fe3+) are toxic, iron is stored inside cells as these protein-iron complexes

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25
Q

Transferrin

A

In blood, iron is transported loosely bound to this transport protein

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26
Q

Bilirubin

A

When heme splits from globin, the balance of the heme group is degraded to this yellow pigment that is released to the blood & binds to albumin for transport

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27
Q

Anemia

A

Condition in which the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity is too low to support normal metabolism; = a sign of some disorder rather than a disease in itself

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28
Q

Microcytes

A

Erythrocytes produced in a person with iron-deficient anemia are small and pale & called this because they can’t synthesize their normal complement of hemoglobin

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29
Q

Intrinsic factor

A

Cells in a person with pernicious anemia produce this substance that must be present for vitamin B12 to be absorbed by intestinal cells

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30
Q

Macrocytes

A

Without B12, developing erythrocytes grow but can’t divide & these large, pale cells result

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31
Q

Thalassemias

A

Typically occur in people of Mediterranean ancestry; one of the globin chains is absent or faulty & the erythrocytes are thin, delicate, & deficient in hemoglobin

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32
Q

Sickle-cell anemia

A

Havoc caused by abnormal hemoglobin (hemoglobin S) results from a change in 1 of the 146 amino acids in a beta chain of the globin molecule; this alteration causes the beta chains to link together under low oxygen conditions, forming stiff rods so that hemoglobin S becomes spiky & sharp & red blood cells become crescent-shaped when they unload oxygen

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33
Q

Polycythemia

A

Abnormal excess of erythrocytes that increases blood viscosity, causing it to sludge

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34
Q

Blood doping

A

Practiced by some athletes competing in aerobic events; artificially induced polycythemia

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35
Q

Leukocytes (WBCs)

A

Only formed elements that are complete cells (with nuclei & the usual organelles)

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36
Q

Diapedis

A

Process by which WBCs are able to slip out of the capillary blood vessels

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37
Q

Amoeboid motion

A

Leukocytes move through tissue spaces by forming flowing cytoplasmic extensions that move them along

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38
Q

Positive chemotaxis

A

Phenomenon in which leukocytes follow the chemical trail of molecules released by damaged cells or other leukocytes

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39
Q

Leukocytosis

A

WBC count of over 11000 cells/microliter; normal homeostatic response to an infection within the body

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40
Q

Granulocytes

A

Spherical cells including neutrophils, eosinophils, & basophils; larger & much shorter lived than erythrocytes; lobed nuclei (rounded nuclear masses connected by thinner strands of nuclear material); membrane-bound cytoplasmic granules stain specifically with Wright’s stain; all are phagocytes to some degree

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41
Q

Neutrophils

A

Most numerous WBCs (50-70%); 2x as large as erythrocytes; 2 types of granules that take up basic/blue & acidic (red) dyes so cytoplasm is lilac colored

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42
Q

Defensins

A

Smaller granules in neutrophils containing this potent brew of anti microbial proteins

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43
Q

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (polys)

A

Because neutrophil nuclei consist of 3-6 lobes, they are often called this

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44
Q

Respiratory burst

A

Process in which cells metabolize oxygen to produce potent germ-killer oxidizing substances (ex. Bleach, hydrogen peroxide)

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45
Q

Eosinophils

A

Account for 2-4% of all leukocytes; approximately the size of neutrophils; nucleus is bilobed (looks like old-fashioned telephone receiver); has large, coarse granules that stain from brick red to crimson; lead counter-attack against parasitic worms; complex role in allergies & asthma

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46
Q

Basophils

A

Rarest of WBCs (0.5-1%); cytoplasm has large, coarse histamine-containing granules that have an affinity for basic dyes, stain purplish black; deep purple nucleus is generally U or S-shaped with 1 or 2 conspicuous constrictions

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47
Q

Agranulocytes

A

Lymphocytes & monocytes (WBCs that lack visible cytoplasmic granules); nuclei are spherical or kidney shaped

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48
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Accounts for 25%+ of the WBC population (2nd most numerous leukocyte); large, dark purple nucleus that occupies most of the cell volume; closely associated with lymphoid tissues

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49
Q

T lymphocytes (T cells)

A

Function in the immune response by acting directly against virus-infected cells & tumor cells

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50
Q

B lymphocytes (B cells)

A

Give rise to plasma cells, which produce antibodies

51
Q

Antibodies

A

Immunoglobulins; produced by plasma cells; released to the blood

52
Q

Monocytes

A

Account for 3-8% of WBCs; largest leukocytes; pale blue cytoplasm & a darkly staining purple nucleus (distinctly U or kidney-shaped); differentiate into macrophages

53
Q

Macrophages

A

Highly mobile cells with prodigious appetites; actively phagocytic; crucial in body’s defense against viruses, certain intracellular bacterial parasites, & chronic infections (tuberculosis); important in activating lymphocytes to mount their immune response

54
Q

Leukopoiesis

A

Production of WBCs, stimulated by chemical messengers

55
Q

Interleukins

A

1 of 2 families of hematopoietic factors, numbered IL-3, IL-5 etc

56
Q

Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)

A

1of 2 families of hematopoietic factors; named for the leukocyte population they stimulate

57
Q

Lymphoid stem cells

A

Early branching of the pathway of leukocyte differentiation divides these cells, which produce lymphocytes, from the myeloid stem cells

58
Q

Myeloid stem cells

A

Cells that give rise to formed elements

59
Q

Myeloblasts

A

Committed cells that accumulate lysosomes

60
Q

Promyelocytes

A

Myeloblasts accumulate lysosomes becoming these cells

61
Q

Myelocyte

A

The distinctive granules of each granulocyte type appear next in this stage and then cell division starts

62
Q

Band cell

A

After the myelocyte stage, the nuclei arc, producing this stage

63
Q

Monoblast & promonocyte stages

A

Cells following the monocyte line pass through these 2 stages before leaving the bone marrow & becoming monocytes

64
Q

T & B lymphocyte precursors

A

T & B lymphocytes are derived from these cells, which arise from the lymphoid stem cell

65
Q

Leukopenia

A

Abnormally low WBC count, commonly induced by drugs, particularly glucocorticoids and anticancer agents

66
Q

Platelets

A

Not cells in the strict sense; 1/4 the diameter of a lymphocyte; = cytoplasmic fragments of extraordinarily large cells (megakaryocytes)

67
Q

Megakaryocytes

A

Extraordinarily large cells that fragment becoming platelets

68
Q

Thrombopoietin

A

Hormone that regulates the formation of platelets

69
Q

Megakaryoblast

A

Repeated mitoses of this cell occur in the platelet line, but cytokinesis does not

70
Q

Hemostasis

A

If a blood vessel wall breaks, a whole series of reactions is set in motion to accomplish this process, which stops the bleeding

71
Q

Vascular spasm

A

Damaged blood vessels respond to injury by constricting

72
Q

Prostacyclin

A

A prostaglandin that prevents platelet aggregation in undamaged tissue & restrict aggregation to the site of the injury (as does nitric oxide)

73
Q

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

A

Potent aggregating agent that causes more platelets to stick to the area & release their contents

74
Q

Serotonin & thrombocytes A2

A

Messengers that enhance vascular spasm & platelet aggregation

75
Q

Coagulation (blood clotting)

A

Process that reinforces the platelet plug with fibrin threads that act as a molecular glue for the aggregated platelets

76
Q

Clotting factors

A

Procoagulants; blood is transformed from a liquid to a gel in a multistory process that involves a series of these substances

77
Q

Intrinsic/extrinsic pathway

A

Coagulation may be initiated by either of these pathways

78
Q

Platelet factor 3 (PF3)

A

Phosphatidylserine

79
Q

Prothrombin activator

A

Once factor X has been activated, it complexes with calcium ions, PF3 & factor V combine to form this

80
Q

Tissue factor (TF) or factor III

A

Factor triggered by exposing blood to a factor found in tissues underneath the damaged endothelium

81
Q

Prothrombin

A

Plasma protein that is converted into the active enzyme thrombin

82
Q

Thrombin

A

Active enzyme that arises from prothrombin

83
Q

Fibrinogen

A

Soluble clotting factor that is transformed into fibrin by thrombin

84
Q

Fibrin

A

Insoluble fiber strands formed from fibrinogen

85
Q

Factor XIII (fibrin stabilizing factor)

A

In the presence of calcium ions, thrombin also activates this cross-linking enzyme that binds the fibrin strands tightly together, forming a fibrin mesh

86
Q

Anticoagulants

A

Factors that inhibit clotting

87
Q

Clot retraction

A

Within 30-60 minutes, this platelet-induced process further stabilizes a clot

88
Q

Serum

A

As platelets contract, they pull on the surrounding fibrin strands, squeezing this fluid (plasma minus the clotting proteins) from the mass , compacting the clot & drawing the ruptured edges of the blood vessel more closely together

89
Q

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)

A

Released by platelets, this factor stimulates smooth muscle cells & fibroblasts to divide & rebuild the vessel wall

90
Q

Fibrinolysis

A

Process that removes unneeded clots when healing has occurred

91
Q

Plasmin

A

Critical natural clot-buster; fibrin-digesting enzyme that is produced when the plasma protein plasminogen is activated

92
Q

Plasminogen

A

Plasma protein that produces plasmin when activated

93
Q

Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)

A

The presence of a clot in and around the blood vessel causes the endothelial cells to secrete this

94
Q

Antithrombin III

A

A protein present in plasma that quickly inactivates any thrombin not bound to fibrin

95
Q

Protein C

A

A protein produced in the liver that inhibits the activity of other intrinsic pathway clotting factors

96
Q

Heparin

A

Natural anticoagulant contained in basophilic & mast cell granules & on the surface of endothelial cells

97
Q

Thromboembolic disorders

A

Disorders resulting from conditions that cause undesirable clot formation

98
Q

Bleeding disorders

A

Disorders that arise from abnormalities that prevent normal clot formation

99
Q

Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)

A

Disorder with characteristics of both thromboembolic disorders & bleeding disorders

100
Q

Thrombus

A

A clot develops & persists in an unbroken vessel

101
Q

Embolus

A

If a thrombus breaks away from a vessel & floats freely in the bloodstream, it becomes this “wedge”

102
Q

Embolism

A

When an embolus encounters a blood vessel too narrow for it to pass through, it becomes this & this obstructs the vessel

103
Q

Aspirin

A

Antiprostaglandin drug that inhibits thromboxane A2 formation (blocking platelet aggregation & platelet plug formation)

104
Q

Warfarin

A

Mainstay of outpatient treatment to reduce the risk of stroke in those prone to atrial fibrillation (condition where blood pools in the heart)

105
Q

Thrombocytopenia

A

A condition in which the number of circulating platelets is deficient, causing spontaneous bleeding from small blood vessels all over the body

106
Q

Hemophilia

A

Refers to several hereditary bleeding disorders that have similar signs & symptoms

107
Q

Factor VIII (antihemophilic factor)

A

Hemophilia A results from a deficiency of this factor

108
Q

Whole blood transfusions

A

Procedure that is routine when blood loss is rapid and substantial

109
Q

Packed red cells

A

In cases where blood loss is not rapid or substantial, transfusions of these are preferred for restoring oxygen-carrying capacity (whole blood in which most of the plasma & leukocytes have been removed)

110
Q

Agglutinogens

A

RBC antigens, so named because they promote agglutination (clumping)

111
Q

ABO blood groups

A

Blood groups based on the presence or absence of 2 agglutinogens (type A & type B)

112
Q

Agglutinins

A

Unique to the ABO blood groups is the presence in the plasma of these preformed antibodies

114
Q

Rh factor

A

1 of 52 Rh agglutinogens

115
Q

Hemolytic disease of the newborn

A

AKA erythroblastosis fetalis; pregnant mother’s antibodies cross the placenta and destroy the baby’s RBC’s when an Rh factor incompatibility exists; baby becomes anemic and hypoxic; brain damage and death may result unless transfusions are done before birth to provide the fetus with more erythrocytes for oxygen transport

116
Q

Tranfusion reaction

A

when mismatched blood is infused, this occurs, in which the recipient’s plasma agglutinins attach the donor’s RBCs

117
Q

Universal donor

A

group O blood because O red blood cells bear neither the A nor the B antigen

118
Q

Universal recipients

A

group AB blood because AB plasma is devoid of antibodies to both A and B antigens; can receive transfusions from any of the ABO groups

119
Q

Autologous transfusions

A

the patient predonates his own blood, and it is stored and immediately available if needed during an operation

120
Q

Plasma expanders

A

purified human serum, albumin, hetastarch, and dextran; provide no benefits over much cheaper electrolyte solutions and are associated with significant complications of their own

121
Q

Differential white blood cell count

A

determines the relative proportions of individual leukocyte types; valuable diagnostic tool

122
Q

Prothrombin time

A

test used to assess the ability of blood to clot

123
Q

Platelet count

A

test done when thrombocytopenia is suspected

124
Q

Complete blood count (CBC)

A

test that includes counts of the different types of formed elements, the hematocrit, measurements of hemoglobin content, and size of RBC’s

125
Q

Hemoglobin F

A

unique hemoglobin formed by a fetus that has a higher affinity for oxygen than does adult hemoglobin (hemoglobin A)

Pre-Pharm - iPad (4 decks)

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